•  • 


;AIT 


Frederick  Slate 
Professor  of  Physics 


AN 


INTRODUCTION 


TO  THE  STUDY  OF 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


BY 


SAMUEL  S.  GREENE,  A.M., 

PROFESSOR  IN  BROWN  UNIVERSITY,  AND  AUTHOR  OF  "  ANALYSIS"  AND 

"  liNGLISH  GRAMMAR."  , 


Res  ante  verba.— COMENEUS. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

COWPERTHWAIT   &   CO, 

1869. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1868,  by 

SAMUEL  S.  GREENE, 

'in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  District 
of  Rhode  Island. 


ELECTROTYPE!)  BY  MACKELLAR,  SMITHS  &  JOBDAW 
PHILADELPHIA. 


V  -v 


PREFACE. 


THE  aim  of  this  Introduction  to  the  study  of  English  Gram- 
mar is  to  aid  the  learner  by  a  systematic  course  of  exercises  in 
his  actual  use  of  the  language.  He  is  expected  to  speak  with 
care,  to  write  daily,  to  observe  the  expressions  of  others,  to  imi- 
tate good  models,  to  invent  many  illustrative  examples,  to  amend 
all  awkward,  low,  and  unsuitable  phrases,  and  to  correct  perse- 
veringly  every  known  error  into  which  he  has  unconsciously 
fallen.  In  short,  he  is  to  begin  upon  his  present  fund  of  lan- 
guage, and  improve  it  by  revising,  correcting,  extending,  refining, 
and  elevating  it. 

His  present  fund  he  has  acquired  almost  unconsciously,  not 
from  grammars  or  lexicons,  but  from  his  daily  intercourse  with 
associates  and  with  the  objects  and  scenes  around  him.  Words, 
expressions,  and  modes  of  construction  have  come  to  him  by 
imitation.  He  discovers  their  meaning  and  use  by  an  in- 
stinctive glance  at  their  immediate  application.  Correct  or 
incorrect,  he  seizes  upon  and  appropriates  a  phrase,  simply  be- 
cause others  use  it  to  express  what  he  wishes  to  express.  Used  a 
few  times,  it  becomes  a  part  of  his  language,  and  is  uttered  with 
as  little  regard  to  its  merits  or  peculiarities  as  he  is  wont  to 
bestow  upon  the  properties  of  the  air  in  the  act  of  breathing. 

Language  to  him  is  an  instrument  for  immediate  and  practical 
use,  and  not  an  object  to  be  dissected  and  examined  for  other 
purposes.  He  employs  it  to  make  known  his  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings, his  joys  and  sorrows,  his  wants  and  acquisitions;  and,  in 
the  act  of  speaking,  these  and  not  words  engross  his  attention. 
Place  before  him  the  elevated  and  classic  language  of  the  best 
writers,  and  he  reads  it  in  tones  which  at  once  betray  his  want 
of  sympathy  both  with  the  thought  and  the  expression.  At  the 
same  time  he  expresses  his  own  ideas,  in  his  own  language,  with 
spirit,  and  with  accuracy  of  emphasis  and  intonation.  It  is  Ian- 


4  PREFACE. 

guage  thui  employed  which  we'  propose  to  improve  in  the  follow- 
ing lessons. 

To  enlist  the  interest  of  children  in  their  expressions,  we 
must  begin  where  their  chief  interests  lie,  namely,  with  objects, 
scenes,  and  pursuits  which  have  occupied  the  wakeful  hours  of 
their  busy  lives,  and  especially  with  the  vivid  mental  pictures 
which  have  arisen  from  them.  Expressions  derived  from  these 
are  their  own,  and  fall  fresh  from  their  lips  instinct  with  thought 
and  feeling. 

It  is  the  use  of  language  which  chiefly  concerns  the  learner ; 
its  principles  will  gradually  unfold  themselves.  He  needs  to 
associate  his  expressions  directly  with  mental  processes,  so  that 
he  may  pass,  as  in  arithmetic,  from  process  to  principle  and 
from  principle  to  rule.  He  has  not  speculated  upon  language ; 
it  is  of  no  consequence  to  him  whether  a  word  is  a  noun  or  an 
adverb,  if  by  the  use  of  it  he  can  supply  his  wants.  In  fact, 
what  are  commonly  called  the  parts  of  speech  are  by  no  means  the 
first  parts  for  him  to  consider.  He  needs  to  regard  his  expres- 
sions in  their  more  vital  relations  to  his  thoughts.  He  thinks 
of  something,  and  tells  what  he  thinks.  He  readily  sees  that  he 
has  an  expression  for  that  something,  and  an  expression  for  what 
he  tells  of  it.  As  soon  as  he  can  distinguish  these  two  parts,  he 
has  not  only  made  a  decided  progress,  but  has  prepared  the  way 
for  other  divisions,  till  at  length  he  reaches  the  parts  of  speech. 
Why  should  there  not  be  intellectual  grammar  as  well  as  intel- 
lectual arithmetic? 

It  is  believed  that  the  matter  contained  in  this  little  volume 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  majority  of  pupils  who  take  only  the 
common  English  branches. 

S.  S.  GREENE. 

PROVIDENCE,  November,  1867. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


THE  following  suggestions  are  offered  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  may  never  have  tried  a  course  of  oral  instruction  with  a 
class  of  beginners : — 

1.  In  Part  I.,  an  oral  exercise,  similar  in  spirit  at  least  to  the 
Models  in  the  Appendix,  should  be  given,  to  develop  the  main 
thought  of  each  Lesson.     It  is  the  surest  indication  of  success 
in  these  exercises  that  the  thought  is  so  clearly  unfolded  as  to 
enable  the  children  to  express  it  in  their  own  language.    Next 
follows  the  Exercise  in  the  text.    For  a  few  of  the  first  Lessons 
this  may  be  given  immediately ;  at  length  it  should  be  assigned 
for  study  and  preparation.     To  prevent  routine,  and  to  keep  the 
intellectual  processes  fresh,  the  teacher  should  make  use  of  new 
examples,  as  indicated  by  the  blanks.    See  Remark  under  2, 
Lesson  I. 

2.  The  exercises  for  correction  are  introduced  to  suggest  some 
of  the  various  kinds  of  error  against  which  the  teacher  is  every 
day  to  contend.    At  first  these  errors  should  be  corrected  simply 
because  they  are  bad  English.     Further  on,  they  may  be  ex- 
plained. 

3.  For  a  few  of  the  first  Lessons,  the  teacher  will  do  well  to 
perform  all  the  writing  upon  the  blackboard,  both  for  the  sake 
of  example  and  to  avoid  crowding  too  many  exercises  upon  the 
children  at  once.    He  need  not,  however,  wrait  till  Lesson  XI. 
before  setting  the  children  to  writing.    Whenever  this  is  done, 
he  cannot  be  too  exact  in  requiring  the  strictest  attention  to  all 
the  primary  requisites  for  good  writing, — just  as  in  all  their  ut- 
terances he  insists  upon  correct  speaking. 

4.  Keeping  in  mind  the  main  purpose  of  these  Lessons, 
namely,  the  teaching  both  of  correct  and  improved  expression, 
and  that  in  its  immediate  connection  with  thinking,  the  teacher 
will  see  how  important  it  is  to  encourage  the  children  to  speak  and 
write  with  the  utmost  freedom.     Let  them  narrate  any  incidents 


6  SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 

occurring  in  their  daily  experience,  in  their  reading,  or  in  theii 
lessons.  Let  them  learn  to  use  paper  and  pen  or  slate  and  pencil 
almost  as  readily  as  they  use  the  tongue.  Let  them  answer  ques- 
tions for  review  on  any  of  their  studies  in  writing.  Let  them 
express  their  requests  to  the  teacher  in  a  neatly  written  form, 
Let  them  write  a  description  of  the  most  common  occurrences, — 
not  as  a  task,  but  as  a  pleasant  way  of  talking  silently. 

The  teacher  should  participate  in  these  exercises,  entering 
with  interest  into  their  thoughts  and  feelings,  as  the  surest  way 
to  acquaint  himself  with  their  scanty  resources  of  language,  not 
forgetting  that  he  who  elevates  the  thoughts  of  children  is  sure 
to  elevate  their  expressions. 

5.  In  the  processes  of  pruning  and  correcting  let  all  participate, 
remembering  that  what  may  be  regarded  as  odious  criticism  forms 
but  a  part  of  the  work.    One  may  suggest  a  better  word,  another 
a  better  combination,  another  a  better  arrangement,  and  still 
another  a  more  refined  and  elevated  turn  of  the  thought,  while 
the  teacher  acts  as  umpire,  giving  words  of  commendation  and 
encouragement,  and  judiciously  employing  the  assistance  of  the 
class  in  every  criticism.     A  general  sentiment  in  favor  of  a  cor- 
rect use  of  language  should  be  encouraged  throughout  the  whole 
school.    It  is  well  to  put  the  defective  and  the  improved  expres- 
sions in  contrast.    For  a  time  these  contrasted  expressions  may 
be  kept  in  a  blank  book  by  each  of  the  class.    They  should 
often  be  put  upon  the  blackboard. 

6.  As  the  learner  advances,  less  and  less  minute  oral  instruc- 
tion will  be  needed.    Analogies  and  principles  will  gradually 
unfold  themselves,  so  that  he  who  has  faithfully  performed  the 
work  on  the  first  fifty-three  pages  will  be  prepared  to  enter  suc- 
cessfully upon  a  systematic  study  of  grammar.    Yet  the  work 
of  correcting  and  improving  should  be  kept  up,  and  at  all  stages, 
in  Part  I.  or  Part  II.,  every  difficult  passage  should  be  illustrated 
by  an  oral  lesson. 


PART  L 
ELEMENTARY  COURSE. 


EXPRESSION— OBJECTS,  IDEAS,  WORDS. 

LESSON  I. 

1.  These  things  which  we  can  see,  feel,  hear, 
smell,  or  taste  are  objects. 

See  Suggestions,  (pp.  5,  6) ;  also  Appendix,  Model  I.  This  pen  is  an 
object;  you  can  ace  it.  This  watch  is  an  object;  you  can  hear  it.  This 
rose  is  an  object;  you  can  smell  it. 

2.  Exercise. 

1.  Taking  objects  one  by  one  from  the  desk,  the  teacher 
says,  "What  is  this?  And  this?  ?  —     -? ?" 

The  blanks,  here  and  elsewhere,  indicate  a  continuance  of  the  exercise, 
at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher,  by  multiplying  examples.  Ready,  apt, 
spontaneous,  and  varied  examples  make  the  strongest  impression.  Prompt 
and  spirited  answers  should  be  required. 

2.  Then,  pointing  to  them  promiscuously,  but  with  in- 
creasing  rapidity,   the   teacher  says,    "  What   is   this  ? — 
this?— this?  ?  ?  —     -?  -        -?" 

3.  Mention  any  thing  which  you  now  see  in  this  room, 
in  that  street,  on  yonder  hill-side, , , . 

4.  Listen !     What  do  you  hear  in  this  room  ?     In  the 
street?     In ? ?  ?  ? 

When  convenient,  make  similar  appeals  to  the  other  senses. 

5.  What  do  you  call  all  these?    Canyon  see  any  thing, 

7 


or  do  you  know  of  any  thing,  that  is  not  an  object? 
What  is  an  object  f 

6.  Pronounce  correctly  and  distinctly  the  names  of  these 
objects : — house  (not  haouse),  horse  (not  hoss),  coiv,  elm, 
sword,  saucer,  windoiv,  ,  ,  ,  , 


3.  Exercise. 

1.  Taking  an  orange  and  dividing  it,  the  teacher  calls 
attention  to  its  parts, — stem,  peel,  pulp,  seeds,  &c.  &c. 

Observe  how  many  pupils  have  no  suitable  name  for  these  parts.  For 
pulp,  you  will  probably  hear,  the  soft  par/,  the  juicy  part,  the  meat,  that 
which  yon  eat,  <fcc.  <fcc.  Whenever  the  children's  vocabulary  is  found  thus 
deficient,  give  them  the  word  in  common  (not  technical)  use.  The  real 
aim  of  these  exercises  should  be  (no  matter  how  incidental  it  may  seem) 
to  give  scope  and  precision  to  their  use  of  words. 

2.  In  a  similar  manner  name  the  parts  of  this  slate, 
this   knife,  this   book,  ,  ,  ,  , 


-;    that   house,   that   tree,   that    carriage, 


3.  Correct  the  following  expressions  by  putting  a  proper 
word  in  place  of  the  phrases  in  Italics. 

Father  bought  one  of  them  things  that  the  shoemaker  sews 
with.  That  top-piece  of  the  window-sash  is  broken.  Them — 
what  do  you  call  them  f  that  they  cut  grass  with  are  made  of 
steel. 

How  many  familiar  things  there  are  for  which  children  have  no  name? 
And  how  many  words  they  learn  to  repeat,  for  which  they  have  no  cor- 
responding object  or  idea! 

•  The  points  requiring  special  care,  thus  far,  are,  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil,  close  attention, — a  single  name  for  every  object  and  every 
part, — the  rig-fat  name,  and  not  a  low  or  unsuitable  name, — distinct 
pronunciation,  and  correct  spelling?;  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  an 
earnest  and  a  persevering  effort  to  call  forth  from  the  children  improved 
modes  of  expression,  by  adding  to  their  vocabulary,  by  securing 
precision  in  the  use  of  words,  by  correcting  all  faulty  utterances  in 
their  conversations.  See  Directions,  4. 


LESSON   SECOND. 


LESSON  II. 

4.  When  we  tliiiiii  of  objects,  they  seem  to 
be  present  in  the  mind. 

Here,  the  appeal  is  to  be  made  directly  to  the  child's  experience.  Can 
he  now,  in  the  school-room,  call  to  mind,  or  seem  to  see,  his  home,  the  house, 
the  grounds,  the  trees,  the  shrubs,  the  flower-beds,  the  walks,  the  fence,  the 

gate,  the  front  door,  the  faces  of  father,  mother,  brothers,  sisters, , 

, , ?     Can  he  recall  other  objects  familiar  to  him? 

He  should  be  questioned  just  as  if  he  and  the  teacher  were  viewing  them 
together. 


5.  Exercise. 

1.  The  teacher,  holding  up  a  watch,  says,  How  many 
really  see  the  watch?  Then,  concealing  it,  How  many  now 
really  see  it?  How  many  seem  to  see  it?  particularly  the 
crystal?  the  chain?  the  ring?  the  key?  the  face  ?  the  hands? 


2.  Can  you  now  by  thinking  tell  me  the  objects  in  your 
room  at  home  ?  —  in  the  garden  ?  in  the  valley  near  your 
house?  --  ?  -  ?  -  ?  -  ? 

3.  Think  of  what  you  saw  on  the  way  to  school,  during 
a  ride,  -  ,  -  ,  -  ,  -  \   and  name  the 
objects  which  you  then  saw,  and  now  seem  to  see. 

4.  Think  of  the  house  nearest  yours.     What  is  the  color 
of  it  ?  of  the  blinds  ?  the  fence  ?     How  many  stories  has 
the  house?     Name  any  trees  or  shrubs  around  it.     How 
wide  is  the  front  gate?     How  high  the  fence?  -  ? 


What  an  opportunity  is  here  afforded  for  cultivating  the  habit  of 
careful  observation  !  How  much  vagueness  of  idea  and  indefiniteness  of 
expression  will  be  readily  detected  and  removed  by  a  faithful  and  tho- 
rough inquiry  after  the  conceptions  which  children  are  forming  !  Object 
we  have  in  common,  but  ideas  lie  concealed  in  the  mind  until  expressed. 


10 

5.  Pronounce,  correctly,  powder,  hearth,  beard,  -  -, 

>  >  >  >  • 

Let  the  teacher  give  any  words  which  the  children  are  accustomed  to 
mispronounce,  and  keep  a  list  of  them  for  frequent  drills. 

LESSON  III. 

6.  That  which  we  seem  to  see  in  the  mind 
is  an  idea. 

The  formation  of  clear  and  distinct  ideas  lays  the  foundation  for  a  cor- 
rect and  appreciative  use  of  words.  The  remedy  for  defective  ideas  is  to 
be  found  in  asking  searching  questions  (5,  4),  making  frequent  appeals 
to  objects,  and  insisting  upon  the  use  of  the  right  words  :  —  objects,  ideas, 
words  is  the  order.  See  Appendix,  Model  2. 

7.  Exercise. 

1.  From  the  idea  in  your  mind,  can  you  give  a  descrip- 
tion of  your  kite  f  top  f  skates  f  sled  f  -  /  -  f 

-  ; 

2.  Give  the  names  of  the  objects  in  order,  as  you  pass 
from  your  house  to  school.     Are  you  guided  by  the  real 
objects,  or  by  your  ideas  of  them  ?    Have  you  seen  Bunker 
Hill  Monument  f   What  is  your  idea  of  it?  of  the  Hudson? 
of  a  prairie?  of  a  buffalo?  of  a  schooner?  -  ?  -  ? 


Questions  like  these  will  disclose  hundreds  of  defects  which  nothing 
but  seeing  can  remedy;  they  will  show  how  powerless  are  mere  words,  and 
what  can  and  must  be  done  to  fill  the  minds  of  children  with  just  concep- 
tions. When  objects  have  not  been  carefully  observed,  the  chain  is  no 
longer  objects,  ideas,  words,  but  words  and,  probably,  vague,  false,  un- 
finished, or  inadequate  (if  any)  ideas,  with  a  conscious  need  of  a  fresh 
examination  of  the  objects  themselves. 

LESSON  IV. 
8.   To  express  our  ideas,  we  use  words  as 

signs. 


LESSON    FOURTH.  11 

Signs,  because  ideas  are  wholly  within  the  mind,  and  can  be  known 
to  no  other  party  except  as  they  are  indicated  by  signs. 

Expressed,  pressed  out,  as  it  were,  from  their  hidden  recesses  in  the 
mind. 

9.  Exercise. 

1.  What  ideas  come  to  your  mind  as  I  give  you  the 
word  ice,  sun,  bow,  arrow,  egg,  , , , 

^ A 

Let  the  children  give  such  descriptions  of  the  objects  as  will  show  that 
their  ideas  of  them  are  correct. 

2.  What  ideas  have  you  when  I  give  you  the  words 
threshold,  lintel,  helmet,  frith,  anemone,  ,  , 

f 

How  many  such  words  children  are  daily  repeating  !  What  ideas  are 
associated  with  them?  Perhaps  none  at  all;  perhaps  confused  and  un- 
certain  ideas;  perhaps  erroneous  ones;  perhaps  the  object  and  the  wore? 
may  both  be  known,  but  not  their  connection  with  each  other.  The  ane- 
mone is  familiar  to  most  children ;  they  have  heard  the  name,  they  have 
seen  the  flower,  but  have  never  "  known  it  by  name/' 

3.  Kead  thoughtfully  these  lines  from  Whittier,  as  if  you 
were  by  the  fireside,  and  tell  what  ideas  the  words  in  dark 
type  call  up. 

The  house-dog,  on  his  paws  outspread, 
Laid  to  the  fire  his  drowsy  head ; 
The  cat's  dark  silhouette  on  the  wall 
A  couchaut  tiger's  seemed  to  fall ; 
And,  for  the  winter  fireside  meet, 
Between  the  andiron's  straddling  feet, 
The  mug  of  cider  simmered  slow, 
The  apples  sputtered  in  a  row ; 
And  close  at  hand  the  hasket  stood, 
With  nuts  from  Drown  October's  wood. 
Can  you  describe  the  whole  picture  ? 
4.  Read  thus  any  descriptive  piece  in  your  Reader. 

Objects  impart  ideas,  but  words  express  thjem.  We  may  use  objects, 
think  of  objects,  or  tneak  of  objects.  In  reading  or  listening,  word*  come 


12  GKEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

first.  Are  they  associated  with  clear  and  well-defined  ideas  ?  Do  they 
point  us  to  corresponding  outward  realities, — the  objects  themselves  ? 
The  true  order  here  is  words,  ideas,  objects. 

5.  TJiinJc  of  the  objects  which  you  saw  in  the  street,  in 
the  museum,  during  your  walk  yesterday,  and  give  a  word 
for  any  of  them.  What  are  in  the  mind  when  thinking 
of  them?  What  do  we  use  in  speaking  of  them?  What 
does  the  word  express? 

Explain  the  connection  between  objects,  ideas,  and  words. 

LESSON  V. 

10.  To  express  a  thought,  we  say  something 
of  some  ofeject. 

See  Suggestions,  (pp.  5,  «). 

11.  Exercise. 

1.  Of  what  object  do  we  speak  in  each  of  these  exam- 
ples? 

The  star  is  twinkling.  The  bird  is  flying. 

The  tree  bends.  The  horse  is  trotting. 

Charles  is  a  good  boy.  The  owl  is  screeching. 

The  apple  is  sour.  The  moon  is  rising. 

The  duck  is  swimming.  is  hopping. 

The  sun .  is  delicious. 

The  horse . . 


Lot  the  pupil  fill  these  and  as  many  more  blanks  as  the  teacher  ruuy 
deem  necessary. 

2.  What  is  said  of  each  of  the  foregoing  objects  ? 

3.  Point  out  ten  objects  in  this  room,  and  say  something 
of  each. 

4.  Is  any  thing  declared  of  the  objects  in  these  exam- 
ples ? 


LESSON    SEVENTH.  13 

The  cold  winter — the  flying  fish — the  mouse  in  the 
cheese — the  hen  on  her  nest — the  boy  running  on  the 
wall — the  door  swinging  on  the  hinges.  Say  something 
of  each  object. 

Here,  as  in  many  others  of  these  exercises,  the  method  of  contrast 
will  make  the  distinction  clear.  Thus,  if  "the  rain  is  pattering"  affirm* 
something  of  the  rain,  do  the  words  "  the  pattering  rain "  affirm  any 
thing  ? 

LESSON  VI. 

12.  The  ivords  used  to  express  a  thought  form 
a  sentence. 

Thus,  the  words,  "  The  sun  is  shining,"  form  a  sentence,  because  they 
say  something  of  the  object,  sun. 

13.  Exercise. 

1.  Name  any  five  things  which  you  know  of  a  lemon,  a 

sponge,  a  dew-drop,  , , , ,  and 

use  each  with  the  name  of  the  object, — first  so  as  to  say 
something,  and  then  so  as  not  to  declare  any  thing. 

2.  Mention  any  actions  performed  by  a  dog,  a  fish,  a  bee, 

a  bird, , , ,  and  use  the  words  so  as  to 

say  something  of  these  objects.     Y\7hat  do  these  examples 
form? 

3.  Fill  these  blanks  so  as  to  form  sentences : — 

The  fox .  The  cars . 

The  grass .  The  ice . 

The  pen . 

LESSON  VIL 

14.  In  a  sentence  we  may  say  several  things 
of  one  object,  or  one  tiling1  of  several  objects. 

Thus,  we  can  say,  The  robin  sings,  hops,  flics,  and  perchce ;  or,  Tha 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  and  melons  ore  ripe. 


14 


15.  Exercise. 


1.  Say  one,  two,  or  more  things  of  this  orange,  that 
horse,  that  tree, , , , . 

2.  Tell  the  branches  of  the  Mississippi,  the  months  of 
the  year,  the  days  of  the  week,  the  names  of  the  scholars 
in  your  class,  the  plants  in  the  flower-bed,  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament, , , , . 

3.  Say  three  things  that  belong  to  three  objects  at  once; 
as,  the  horse,  the  dog,  and  the  fox  can  ,  , 


LESSON  VIII. 

16.  To  represent  the  object,  or  what  is  said  of 
it?  we  may  use  one  word,  or  several  words. 

Thus,  in  the  example,  "  falter — sings,"  one  word  stands  for  the  ob- 
ject, and  one  word  for  what  is  said.  But  in  the  example,  "  The  knife 
which  I  hold  in  my  hand — was  made  in  England/'  eight  words  stand  for 
the  particular  object,  and  four  for  what  is  said  of  it. 


17.  Exercise. 

1.  How  many  words  stand  for  the  object,  and  how  many 
for  what  is  said  of  it,  in  these  examples  ? 
Gertrude  plays. 
The  sun  shines. 
Lead  is  heavy. 
The  smoke  rises  gracefully. 
The  old  fence  has  fallen. 
The  oldest  boy  shall  go  first. 
A  strong  south  wind  soon  brought  a  heavy  rain. 
A  rainbow  in  the  morning  is  the  shepherd's  warning. 
My  voice  may  reach  a  friendly  ear. 


LESSON   NINTH.  15 

Kobert  came  trembling  into  the  presence  of  the  officer. 

The  merry  birds  have  left  the  bough. 

The  glow  of  sunset  was  already  fading  upon  the  border 
of  the  sky. 

2.  Fill  these  blanks,  and  then  tell  what  words  represent 
the  object,  and  what  words  show  what  is  said  of  it. 

mountain  rose  in  sight. 

billows were  rolling  high. 

boat  was  tossed . 


Shall class  study ? 

See  how  much  you  can  improve  these  examples : — They 
don't  know  nothing  'bout  it.  You  hadn't  ought  'o  do  sech 
things.  Where  be  you  goin'  to  ?  Be  them  fellers  agoin' 
with  you  ?  Is  there  many  on  'em  with  you  ? 

Persevere  every  day  in  correcting  similar  expressions. 


LESSON  IX. 

18.  When  several  words  are  taken  together 
(16),  one  of  them  is  principal,  and  the  others 
limit  it. 

Thus,  the  word  trees  stands  for  any  number  of  trees,  but  ten  trees 
stands  for  a  limited  number  of  trees.  Here  trees  is  the  principal  word, 
and  ten  limits  it,  that  is,  prevents  its  applying  to  so  great  a  number  as 
before.  Thus,  we  have  trees,  old  trees,  the  two  old  trees  in  that  pas- 
ture, this  tree  under  which  we  sit. 


19.  Exercise. 

1.  Which  may  represent  the  greater  number  of  ob- 
jects,— -peaches,  or  Jive  peaches?  men,  or  wise  men/  clouds, 
or  those  white  clouds  in  the  west  f  buttons,  or  the  gilt  buttons 
on  that  officer's  coat/  ,  /  ,  f 


16 

2.  Mention  the  principal  word  and  the  limiting  words 
in  any  of  the  foregoing  examples. 

Let  the  pupil  see,  by  examples,  that  the  limiting  word,  when  fre- 
quently prefixed,  often  unites  with  the  principal  and  forms  one  word;  as, 
penman,  iuA*stf»ncl,  /wndkerchief,  /ieae/ache; — or,  less  permanently, 
with  a  hyphen  between ;  as,  ?//e-boat,  freight-train,  tooorf-saw ;  and 
without  permanence,  but  with  the  effect  of  one  word,  when  any  limiting 
words  cluster  around  a  principal  ,•  as,  f&e-fooat-which-now-lies-at-tho- 
pier  =  one  boat,  named  by  one  expression. 

3.  Tell  the  principal  and  the  limiting  part  in  these 
words : — 

Horse-car,  dog-tooth-violet,  humming-bird,  hen-house, 
eider-duck,  egg-plant,  snow-bird,  fish-hawk,  ground-squirrel, 

4.  Which  of  the  following  expressions  should  be  united 
into  one  word,  and  -which  should  not? 

The-blue-sky  ;  horse  shoe  ;  a-ride-in-the-country  ;  pen 
man ;  house  plant ;  tree  box  ;  the  white  bear  of  the  polar 
regions ;  the-willow-in-the-meadow. 

5.  Tell  the  principal  word  in  each  of  the  foregoing  ex- 
amples ;  also,  the  limiting  words. 

6.  Apply  limiting  words  to  the  following  subjects  and 
predicates : — 

boys  studied ;  soldiers  marched ; 

class  will   recite  ;   flowers   are   growing  — ; 

swans  are  swimming ;  wheat  is  growing  • 


7.  Correct  the  following  expressions : — AVt  there  no 
more  bread  ?  Bring  me  them  'ere  pinchers.  There  is  five 
agoin'  a'ready.  See  what  them  rabbits  done !  He  is  the 
best  player  I  ever  seen.  It  was  me  that  done  it.  I  am 
iifeard  of  dogs.  Us  fellers  did  all  the  work,  and  you  done 
nothin'  at  all. 


LESSON   TENTH.  17 

LESSON  X. 

20.  A  sentence  may  be  a  statement,  a  ques- 
tion, a  command,  or  an  exclamation* 

Thus  :— 

The  child  is  crying A  statement. 

Is  the  child  crying  ? A  question. 

Do  not  cry,  my  child A  command. 

0.  how  that  child  cries !  .  .  .  An  exclamation. 

21.  Exercise. 

1.  Make  a  statement  about  any  five  objects  which  you 
now  see. 

2.  Ask  a  question  about  five  objects  which  you  think  of, 
or  seem  to  see  (6). 

3.  Think  of  a  party  of  children,  or  a  company  of  sol- 
diers, and  give  five  appropriate  commands  to  them,  as  if 
you  were  with  them. 

4.  Give  three  exclamations  about  something  which  you 
now  see,  hear,  or  think  of. 

5.  Tell  which  of  the  following  are  statements,  ques- 
tions, commands,  or  exclamations : — 

Is  the  old  jail  burnt  ? 
Where  shall  we  go  ? 
You  know  the  man. 
Write  just  what  you  think. 
O,:  how  sweet  that  flower  is ! 
What  a  mistake  he  made ! 
Who  came  in  this  morning? 
Well,  he  must  correct  it. 
The  new  house  is  finished. 
Observe  these  capitals. 
Come,  boys,  write  your  lesson. 
Notice  all  the  punctuation  marks. 


18 

6.  Change  these  examples  from  one  kind  to  another, 
thus : — 

The  old  jail  is  burnt.  How  was  the  old  jail  burnt? 
Burn  the  old  jail. 

7.  Correct  and  avoid  such  examples  as  these : — 

Him  and  me  is  goin'  to  set  together.  He  wants  me 
bad.  There  a'n't  no  meat  for  you  and  I.  Do  you  say, 
sitting  reading  writing  comin'  f  Have  you  heard  any  incor- 
rect expressions  to-day  ?  Do  any  of  you  say,  ca-ow,  sich, 
yender,  ef,  'spose'n'  you  do  it,  wdl,  hisn,  hern,  yourny  theirn, 
them's  em  f 


LESSON  XI. 

22.  A  sentence  may  be  spoken  or  written. 

In  writing  sentences,  observe  the  following  Cau- 
tions : — 

I.  Write  just  what  you  really  think. 

II.  Write  your  examples  neatly  and  legibly. 

You  are  forming  habits  for  life.     Do  not  say,  "  I  am  in  haste." 

III.  Be  careful  to  spell  every  word  correctly. 

You  may  speak  words,  and  not  spell  them ;  but  when  you  write,  you 
must  spell  them.  Many  an  important  position  has  been  lost  by  a  few 
misspelled  "words. 

IV.  Make  use  of  CAPITALS  for  the  first  letter  of 
every  sentence, — of  every  particular  name, — of  names  of 
the  Deity, — of  every  line  of  poetry,  and  for  the  words  I 
and  0;  and  use  small  letters  for  the  common  words. 

The  teacher  will  illustrate  these  rules,  when  needed.  Nothing  betrays 
a  want  of  culture  more  than  negligence  or  ignorance  in  the  use  of  capitals. 

V.  Place  at  the  end  of  every  statement  or1 command  a 
period  (.-), — of  every  question,  an  interrogation  point 
(?), — of  every  exclamation,  an  exclamation  point  (!) 


LESSON    ELEVENTH.  19 

VI.  Be  careful  to  use  a  comma  (,)  to  separate  the 
parts  of  a  series,  as  in  the  example  (14t), — to  separate  O, 
or  the  name  of  a  person  spoken  to,  from  the  other  words, 
as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples  (2O). 

The  teacher  will  illustrate  by  examples  and  give  other  rules  when 
needed,  insisting  upon  a  uniform  observance  of  them.  Correct  punc- 
tuation may  be  easily  taught  by  drawing  attention,  one  by  one,  to  the 
constructions  which  require  points. 

VII.  When  an  erroneous  expression  of  your  own  is 
corrected,  write  the   correction   in   full,  and  ever   after 
avoid  the  error. 

VIII.  Never  divide  a  syllable  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

IX.  If,  by  mistake,  a  word  or  a  letter  is  omitted,  write 
it  above,  with  a  caret  (A)  below. 

his 

Thus  : — The  boy  has  lost   hat. 
A 

23.  Exercise. 

1.  Write,  for  examination  and  correction,  ten  sentences, 
and  give  all  the  varieties  in  (2O),  observing  all  the  Cau- 
tions in  (S3). 

Let  these  examples  be  examined  by  the  teacher,  and  let  the  errors  be 
employed  as  models  for  correction.  The  blackboard  should  be  used  freely. 

2.  Show  what  Cautions  are  violated  in  these  examples, 
and  write  them  all  correctly  : — 

what  shall  i  do. 

the  mouse  is  Eating  the  chease  ? 
i  saw  henry  in  the  garden  ? 
Where  do  the  clouds  hide  theirselves. 
james  John  and  david  are  going  to  boston 
the  cardinal  points  are  north  east  south  and  west. 
Come  waiter  and  bring  your  crocay  set  with  you 
The  prime  factors  of  thirty  are  two  three  and  five 
addition  substraction  multiplication  and  division  are 
the  ground  rules  of  rethmetic. 


20  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

3.  Write  on  your  slates,  giving  the  boundaries  of  Mas- 
sachusetts,   , ,  ;  the  capital  towns  or 

cities  of  the  Middle  States, , , ;  the 

branches  of  the  Amazon,  ,  ,  ;  the 

names  of  five  Presidents  of  the  United  States,  , 


4.  Put  the  proper  points  after  the  following  examples : 
The  teacher  has  come — Are  our  lessons  well  prepared — 

A  mountain  is  a  great  elevation  of  land — What  is  a  cape — 
O,  what  a  blunder  that  is — Write  these  examples  care- 
fully— Omit  no  punctuation  marks — Whose  slate  is  this — 
Why  should  you  be  so  careful  to  write  correctly  now — It 
is  easier  to  learn  the  right  way  than  to  correct  the  wrong — 
How  many  words  has  Charles  misspelled — 

5.  Which  of  the  following  examples  are  right,  and 
which  are  wrong  ? — 

i  aint  no  coppersmith.     I  am  no  coppersmith. 

that  aint  no  fair.      That  is  not  fair. 

'coz  there  aint  none.     Because  there  is  none. 

I  seen  him  when  he  done  it.     I  saw  him  when  he  did  it. 

i's  cold.     So  be  I.     I  am  cold.     So  am  I. 

A  most  excellent  practice,  to  free  a  class  from  these  perverted  expres- 
sions, is  to  require  each  member  to  collect  in  a  little  blank-book  all  those 
which  are  actually  heard,  and  on  the  opposite  page  to  write  out  neatly 
the  proper  expression.  Let  the  examination  of  these  books  form  a  special 
exercise. 

Remember  that  the  habit  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly  is  now  to  be 
established;  and  the  rule  is,  Learn  to  speak  correctly  by  speaking 
correctly. 


LESSON  XII. 

24.  The  subject  of  a  sentence  represents  that 
of  which  something  is  said. 

Thus,  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  "Age  should  be  respected/'  is  ape, 
because  it  represents  that  about  which  something  is  said. 


LESSON   TWELFTH.  21 

25.  The  predicate  of  a  sentence  represents 
what  is  said  of  the  subject. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  This  fruit  is  delicious"  is  delicious  is  the  predi- 
cate, because  it  represents  what  is  said  of  fruit. 

26.  Exercise. 

1.  Which  are  the  subjects,  and  which  the  predicates,  in 
the  following  examples  ? — 

The  primrose  is  blooming.  How  cold  the  water  is! 
The  child  is  asleep.  Spain  is  in  the  southwest  of  Europe. 
We  shall  study  history.  Who  will  teach  us?  How  long 
shall  we  study  Geography  ?  Keturn  to  your  seat.  Where 
is  the  next  lesson  ? 

2.  Say   something   of  this   globe,   this  map,   , 

, , ,  and  tell  what  the  predicates  are. 

3.  Ask  something  about  this  watch,  this  belt,  this  port- 
folio,   , ,  , j  ,  and  give 

the  predicates. 

4.  Put  together  the  words  in  the  following  examples 
so  as  to  form  any  of  the  kinds  of  sentence  in  (2O),  and 
write  them,  observing  the  Cautions  in  (23).     Add  any 
words,  if  needed. 

The  delicious  fruit — my  pleasant  home — the  olive  grow- 
ing on  the  hill — the  white  bleating  lamb — the  celery  gar- 
dener in  raising  successful — these  examples  written  cor- 
rectly. Look  out  capitals  for  in  them  writing. 

5.  Correct  these  examples  in  all  respects : — 

the  winds  are  bloing — how  old  is  arther — i  knowd  who 
done  this — what  for  did  you  do  it — my  lesson  is  wrote— 
james  hasn't  got  no  pencil — i  will  lend  him  this  'ere  one. 

6.  Put  subjects  in  place  of  the  following  blanks : — 

: is  sinking.  Is here  ? 

is  reading.  Where  is ? 

are  coming.  is  drumming  ? 


22 

is  frisking.  How  long  is  this ? 

is  beautiful.  When  will come  ? 

How  sad looks !     Study the  rules. 

What  cheerless  nights had ! 

7.  Put  predicates  in  place  of  the  following  blanks : — 

The  clock  -      — .  The  sled . 

The  ducks .  The  post . 

My  hat  -      — .  Your  belt . 

Where Jonas ?  The  moon . 

Who the  books  ?         [thou],  Charles,  to  ma 

How he ?        your  lessons,  boys ! 

Why -  you ?      What  has  she  -       - ! 

How he ?        He my  brother. 

Let  these  exercises  be  written  and  examined. 


LESSON  XIII. 

27.  When  a  sentence  is  separated  into  its  parts, 
it  is  analyzed. 

The  sentence,  "  The  winter  is  passing,"  is  analyzed  thus  : — 

Winter  .  ...  is  the  subject;  it  represents  that  of  which  something 

is  affirmed. 
is  passing-  .  .  is  the  predicate;  it  represents  that  which  is  affirmed 

of  the  subject. 

It'may  be  represented  in  its  parts  to  the  eye  thus: — The  winter — is 
passing. 

28.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  examples  : — 

The  peacock  has  beautiful  feathers.  The  bridge  was 
destroyed.  His  slate  is  covered.  What  a  storm  this  is ! 
When  shall  we  write?  Who  comes  yonder? 

In  this  analysis  no  :. Mention  should  be  paid  to  the  modifying  words; 
say,  the  peacock  is  the  subject,  and  has  beautiful  feathers  is  the  predicate: 
it  shows  what  is  said. 


LESSON    THIRTEENTH.  23 

2.  Analyze  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  (2O)  which 
you  form  about  yonder  sunset,  that  cloud,  those  boats, 
yonder , , , . 

Hero  encourage  the  children  to  express  their  thoughts  freely  and  natu- 
rally. 

3.  In  the  following  examples,  which  expressions  seem 
to  you  best  ? 

Be  you  agoin'  to  be  to  hum  to-morrow  ?  Are  you  going 
to  be  at  home  to-morrow?  Shall  you  be  at  home  to-mor- 
row ?  Are  you  to  be  at  home  to-morrow  ? 

He  ha'n't  fetched  no  slate  to  school.  He  has  fetched 
no  slate  to  school.  He  has  brought  no  slate  to  school. 
He  has  not  brought  any  slate  to  school. 

He's  a  gettin'  the  lesson  that  he  hadn't  ought  to.  He 
is  getting  the  lesson  that  he  had  not  ought  to.  He  is 
learning  the  wrong  lesson.  He  is  getting  the  lesson  he 
ought  not  to.  He  is  getting  the  lesson  he  ought  not  to 
get.  He  is  getting  the  wrong  lesson. 

I  ha'n't  got  no  grammar  book.  I  have  no  grammar 
book.  I  have  no  grammar.  I  have  not  got  any  grammar. 
I  am  not  the  owner  of  a  grammar.  I  haven't  any  grammar. 
I  do  not  possess  a  grammar  book.  I  haven't  no  grammar. 

It  is  an  excellent  practice  to  draw  from  a  class  a  variety  of  expres- 
sions, and  then  discuss  the  merits  or  demerits  of  each,  always  pronouncing 
upon  that  which  is  best. 

4.  Mention  any  incorrect  expressions  which  you  have 
noticed  to-day. 

This  exercise  should  be  encouraged  daily.  A  great  change  in  the 
modes  of  expression  will  soon  be  observed,  if  the  teacher  will  persevere 
and  press  earnestly  the  work  of  correction. 

5.  Try  to  improve  these  expressions : — 
Wher'bouts  is  our  g'ography  lesson?     Can  I  borry  a 

slate-pencil  ?  Them  pens  is  poor.  She  is  tryin'  to  do  them 
sums,  but  she  hadn't  ought  to  study  fractions  for  a  long 
spell  to  come. 


24  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

CLASSES  AND  USES  OF  WOKDS. 

LESSON  XIV. 

29.  The  name  of  an  object  (an  object-word)  is 
a  noun. 

Here  the  point  is  to  distinguish  clearly  between  the  object  itself  (1) 
and  its  name  (8).  Thus,  this  pen  is  an  object;  but  the  word  pen,  which  I 
write  on  the  board,  is  only  an  object-word,  or  name  for  the  object.  See 
Appendix.  Objects  of  tlwuylit  should  not  be  introduced  here. 

30.  Exercise. 

1.   What  do  you  call  these  words?  —  lion,  tiger, 
sun,  moon,  house,  Solomon,  Peter,  -  ,  -  , 


2.  Think  of  the  objects  in  your  room  at  home,  and  write 
the  names  of  ten  of  them  (see  7)  on  your  slates.     What 
do  you  call  these  names  ? 

3.  Think  of  what  these  words  represent,  and  tell  which 
stand  for  objects  :  —  hen,  clearly,  house,  into,  swimming,  rat, 
of,  dog,  good,  old,  snow. 

4.  Tell  the  nouns  in  these  examples  :  — 

Frederick  is  drinking  water.  Has  Charles  caught  a 
trout?  O,  how  bright  the  lightning  is!  When  did  the 
boy  bring  that  basket?  Henry  came  from  Philadelphia 
in  the  cars. 

5.  Write  five  sentences,  and  select  the  nouns  (see 


LESSON  XV. 

31.   The  noun  may  be  used  as  the  subject 

(24). 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Mary  is  playing/'  Mary  is  the  name  of  the 
object  of  which  something  is  said;  it  is  a  noun,  and  is  the  subject  (24)  of 
the  sentence. 


LESSON   SIXTEENTH.  25 

32.  Exercise. 

1.  What  nouns  in  these  examples  are  subjects? 

Jane  walked  to  the  city.  Where  will  the  sun  rise? 
The  old  man  remained  in  his  carriage.  The  wind  has 
broken  the  branches  of  the  trees.  The  Indians  live  in 
huts.  Kabbits  burrow  in  the  ground. 

2.  Write  in  full  the  answers  to  five  questions  in  your 
Geography  lesson,  and  tell  what  nouns  are  used  as  sub- 
jects. 

3.  Correct  the  following  examples  (see  37),  and  point 
out  the  nouns  used  as  subjects. 

the  pitcher  was  broke — no  rivers  a'n't  flowing  into  it — 
there  a'n't  no  fun  in  that  play — george  done  all  this  mis- 
chief— them  boys  is  whispering — where  be  them  pencils — 
Be  the  class  .goin'  to  take  all  them  questions — the  girl 
didn't  do  nothing — the  boys  didn't  know  nothing  about  it. 

LESSON  XVI. 

33.  The  noun,  with  "is"  or  "are,"  may  form 
the  predicate  (SO). 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "Boston  is  the  capital,"  capital,  with  "is"  pre- 
ceding it,  forms  the  predicate  of  the  sentence.  The  pupil  should  see  that 
a  noun  without  "is"  or  "are"  cannot  form  a  predicate;  as,  "Boston,  the 
wtpital,"  The  learner  will  see,  hereafter,  that  any  form  of  "to  be"  is  used 
to  form  the  predicate. 

34.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  nouns  used  with  "is"  or  "are"  to  form 
the  following  predicates : — 

The  earth  is  a  globe.  Venus  is  a  planet.  The  stars 
are  suns.  The  squirrel  is  a  quadruped.  The  pinks  are 
.  The  shad  is  a .  Alexander  is  a . 


26  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

2.  Correct  these  examples,  and  point  out  the  nouns 
used  as  predicates : — 

Them's  the  books — that  'ere  is  my  cap — be  we  good 
boys — bes  you  a  German — am  he  a  traitor. 

Let  the  pupil  observe  that  "  is "  is  used  when  the  subject  means  but 
one,  and  "  are"  when  it  means  more  than  one. 


LESSON  XVII. 

35.  A  noun  may  be  used  without  "is"  or 
"  are/'  to  limit  (18)  another  noun ;  but  the 
words  do  not  form  a  sentence. 

Thus,  queen  would  mean  any  queen ;  but  Queen  Victoria  means  a  par- 
ticular queen  (see  18, 1).  Here  Victoria  is  used  to  limit  queen,  but  nothing 
is  affirmed. 


36,  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  limiting  nouns  in  these  examples : — 
The  planet  Venus  is  morning  star.     The  ship  Nautilus 

has  left  the  harbor.  Lincoln,  the  President,  was  assassi- 
nated. David,  the  Psalmist,  was  the  poet-king.  The  river 
Nile  overflows  its  banks. 

Caution. — When  the  limiting  noun  is  itself  limited,  place  a  comma 
before  the  united  words ;  thus,  Peter,  the  hermit. 

2.  Point  out  the  subject  or  the  predicate  noun  in  the 
foregoing  examples. 

3.  Fill  these  blanks  with  limiting  nouns : — 
My  dog follows  me. 

His  brother went  into  the  country. 

The  river empties  into  the  Mediterranean. 

The  poet wrote  Paradise  Lost. 


LESSON   EIGHTEENTH.  27 

4.  Correct  these  examples  in  all  respects : — 
^Napoleon  the  emperor  of  the   french   is   a  powerful 

monarch — the  mississippi  the  father  of  waters  drains  a 
vast  basin — correct  expression  a  most  important  study  is 
sadly  neglected — Columbus  the  discoverer  of  america  was 
carried  home  in  chains. 

The  teacher  will  readily  see  whether  these  exercises  have  fixed  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  the  three  uses  of  the  noun,  as  subject,  predicate,  and 
limiting  noun.  If  not,  more  examples  should  be  given  to  them,  and  re- 
quired of  them. 

5.  Write  five  examples,  using  three  nouns  in  each, — • 
one  as  subject,  one  with  "is"  or  "are"  to  form  the  predi- 
cate, and  one  to  limit  the  subject ;  thus,  My  brother  James 
is  a  student. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

37.  The  pronoun  (for-noun)  may  be  put  for 
the  noun,  in  its  different  uses. 

Thus,  instead  of  "  William  is  at  home,"  we  may  say,  He  is  at  home; 
instead  of  "That  is  Julia,"  we  may  say,  That  is  she;  instead  of  "The 
storm  has  abated,"  It  has  abated.  He,  she  and,  it,  are  pronouns,  used  in- 
stead of  the  nouns.  The  particular  uses  of  the  pronouns  will  be  considered 
hereafter. 

38.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the   pronouns   in  these  examples ;    tell 
whether  they  are  used  as  subject  or  predicate : — 

He  has  come.  Where  is  he  ?  I  am  he.  She  is  study- 
ing. It  is  cold.  They  will  return. 

2.  Put  pronouns  in  place  of  the  following  nouns : — 
George  reads  well.    Where  has  Henry  been  ?    It  is  my 

cousin.     Sarah  has  found  her  crewel.     The  boys  are  at 
play.     When  will  the  stars  shine? 


28  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


LESSON  XIX. 

39.  A  word  added  to  a  noun  to  express  a  qua- 
lity of  the  object  named  is  a  quality- word,  or 
adjective. 

Thus,  in  the  expression  "sweet  apple/'  sweet  stands  for  a  quality  of  the 
apple.  Here  make  a  clear  distinction,  by  an  oral  exercise,  between  an 
object  and  its  qualities,  and  between  a  quality  and  the  quality-word. 
Adjectives  used  merely  to  limit  nouns  should  come  in  gradually. 

40.  Exercise. 

1.  What  qualities  do  you  find  in  this  orange  by  looking 
at  it  ?  by  feeling  it  ?  by  tasting  it  ?  by  smelling  it  ?     In  the 
same  way,  what  qualities  do  you  find  in  this  sponge  f  this 
rose  f  f  /  /  / 

2.  Do  these  several  words  name  the  objects,  or  express 
what  you  find  in  the  objects?     What  do  you  call  them? 

3.  Name  any  objects  which  have  the  quality  white, 
smooth,  juicy,  fresh,  round,  • , , . 

4.  Name  any  of  the  qualities  of  water,  milk,  an  apple, 
a  horse,  ,  ,  , ,  and  write  sen- 
tences, as  in  (15). 

5.  What  do  you  call  these  words? — small;  old;  young; 
ripe;  large;  rough;  ;  ;  ;  . 

6.  Point  out  the  adjectives  in  these  examples : — Sweet 
apples, — ripe   melons, — sour   grapes, — new   houses, — cool 
winds, — clear  skies.     To   what   kind  of  words  are  they 
added  ? 

LESSON  XX. 

41.  The  adjective  may  be  used  with  "is"  or 
"  are/'  to  form  the  predicate  (25) . 

Thus,  we  may  use  the  adjective  sour  with  "is,"  and  say,  "The  apple 
'{9  sour." 


LESSON   TWENTY-FIRST.  29 

42.  Exercise. 

1.  What  adjectives  do  you  use  to  name  the  qualities  of  a 
book  f  a  rose  f  a  ball  f  f  f  f 

2.  Form  predicates  with  them  by  using  them  with  "is." 

3.  Write  five  nouns,  and  predicate  four  qualities  of 
each  (15),  (S3). 

4.  Correct  the  following  examples : — 

fanny  writes  good — the  sun  sat  in  a  cloud — i  seen  him 
when  he  done  it — be  I  rite  or  rong — how  fur  does  the 
lesson  go — how  many  sums  have  we  got  to  git — sarah  is 
in  her  wrong  seat — can  i  go  to  the  fire. 

5.  How  many  expressions  of  your  own  have  you  im- 
proved ?    How  many  have  you  detected  in  others  ? 


LESSON  XXI. 

43.  The  adjective  without  "is"  or  "are"  may 
be  added  to  a  noun  to  limit  its  application;  but 
the  words  do  not  form  a  sentence. 

Thus,  geese  names  all  the  birds  of  this  kind,  but  wild  geese  names  only 
a  part  of  them ;  wild  is  added  to  geese,  and  limits  its  application  to  one 
class  of  geese. 

M.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  adjectives  used  to  limit  the  nouns  in 
the  following  examples  : — 

Kough  boards — old  rails — large  gains — sweet  peas — 
clean  hands — red  ink — dark  cloth. 

Let  the  pupil  see  that  other  words  besides  quality-words  may  be  added 
to  nouns  to  limit  their  applications, — such  as  two,  three,  four y  this,  that, 
and  others.  These,  also,  are  called  adjectives. 

2.  Use  two  or  more  adjectives, — one  to  limit  the  sub- 
ject, and  one  with  "  is,"  &c.,  to  show  what  is  said  (SO9  5). 


30  UBEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

3.  Name  any  qualities  of  gold,  lead,  ice,  — 
and  affirm  them,  as  in  (14:). 


LESSON  XXII. 

45.  A  word  which,  of  itself,  affirms  or  says 
something  of  an  object,  is  a  verb. 

Thus,  "  is "  is  a  verb  in  "  Ice  is  cold ;"  because  it  affirms  something 
of  ice.  Here  "  is  "  affirms,  and  cold  expresses  what  it  affirms. 

46.  A  word  which  stands  for  an  action  (action- 
word)  is  a  verb,  when  of  itself  it  can  affirm 
the  action ;  a  participle,  when  of  itself  it  can 
only  express  the  action,  without  affirming  it. 

Thus,  in  the  example  "The  dog  runs,"  "runs"  is  a  verb,  because  it 
both  stands  for  the  action  and  affirms  it;  but  in  the  example  "The  dog 
running,"  "running"  is  not  a  verb,  but  a  participle,  because  it  only  stands 
for  the  action ;  it  does  not  affirm  it.  By  putting  in  "  is,"  we  have  a  word 
to  affirm  and  another  to  express  the  action, — "  The  dog  is  running." 

This  distinction  must  be  made  clear  to  the  child  by  examples.  He 
can  readily  see  that  a  participle  alone  can  never  say  any  thing  of  an  ob- 
ject. Let  the  pupil  see  that  no  other  word  than  the  verb  can  of  itself 
form  the  predicate.  Try  a  noun,  a  jjronow??,  an  adjective,  or  a  participle. 

4:7.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  verbs  and  the  participles  in  the  follow- 
ing examples : — 

The  sun  shines.  The  horse  is  running.  The  birds  are 
flying.  The  dog  barks.  The  snow  melts.  The  bells  are 
ringing.  The  winds  blow.  The  rising  sun.  The  sun  is 
rising.  The  falling  leaves.  The  leaves  fall.  The  stars 

.     The  lily  .     The  soldier  wounded  in  the 

hand.     The  soldier  is  wounded  in  the  hand. 

2.  Mention  any  actions  of  the  robin,  the  fox,  the  bee, 


LESSON   TWENTY-FOURTH.  31 

-,  and  affirm  them  as  in  (14),  using 


one  word  for  each. 

3.  Express  the  actions  by  using  the  participle.  Affirm 
each  by  using  "  is  "  or  "  are." 

LESSON  XXIII. 

48.  The  verb  either  is  the  predicate,  or  is 
used  in  forming  it. 

Thus,  when  we  say,  "  He  reads,"  we  use  the  verb  reads  alone  as  the 
predicate ;  but  when  we  say,  "  The  plums  are  ripe,"  we  use  the  verb  are 
to  affirm,  and  ripe  to  show  what  is  affirmed.  Neither  ripe  alone,  nor  are 
alone,  can  form  the  predicate. 

49.  Exercise. 

1.  In  the  following  examples,  point  out  those  in  which 
the  verb  alone  forms  the  predicate,  and  those  in  which  the 
verb  and  another  word  are  used. 

The  boy  swims. 

The  berries  are  sweet. 

The  man  is  reading. 

The  clouds  rise  over  the  hills. 

The  summer  is  warm. 

The  rising  sun  is  bright. 

Those  men  are  soldiers. 

That  ship  glides  over  the  waves. 

That  boat  is  a  propeller. 

LESSON  XXIV. 

50.  The  participle  may  be  used  like  the  ad- 
jective (41,  43) . 

Thus,  we  may  say,  "  The  rising  sun  gilds  the  mountain-top,"  or,  "  The 
sun  is  rising  in  the  east." 


32  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

51.  Exercise. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  participles 
used  to  limit,  and  those  used  in  the  predicate : — 

The  sun  is  rising. 

The  sparkling  stream  is  pouring  over  the  precipice. 

The  beautiful  boat  is  sailing  down  the  stream. 

The  pouring  rain  falls  in  torrents. 

The  roaring  lion  frightens  the  hunters. 

The  moving  mass  is  stretching  over  the  ground. 

2.  In  these  examples,  tell  whether  the  predicate  is  a 
verb  alone,  a  verb  and  a  participle,  a  verb  and  an  adjec- 
tive, or  a  verb  and  a  noun : — 

The  shower  is  coming, 

O,  how  it  rains ! 

The  earth  is  wet. 

The  dew  is  sparkling  on  the  grass. 

The  hyena  is  an  offensive  animal. 

The  gold  is  melting. 

3.  Put  upon  the  blackboard  any  errors  which  you  have 
heard  to-day. 

LESSON  XXV, 

52.  A  word  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  adverb,  is  an  adverb. 

Thus,  in  "The  horse  walks  slowly;"  "&very  ripe  peach;"  "the  storm 
approaching  gradually ;"  "rising  too  quickly  ;"  slowly,  very,  gradually, 
and  too  quickly  are  adverbs. 

Let  this  only  use  of  the  adverb  be  fully  illustrated  by  drill  exercise. 
See  Suggestions,  (pp.  5,  6) ;  also,  Appendix 

533  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  adverbs  in  these  examples : — 
Charles  writes  carefully. 
The  weather  is  very  cold. 


LESSON    TWENTY-SIXTH.  33 

The  dog  barks  most  furiously. 
Henry  entered  too  abruptly. 
The  man  is  sitting  there. 
The  orator  spoke  eloquently. 
The  word  is  too  difficult. 

2.  Analyze  the  foregoing  examples,  and  show  how  the 
predicates  are  limited. 

3.  Tell  the  verbs,  adjectives,  nouns,  pronouns,  and  ad- 
verbs in  these  examples  : — 

John  is  at  the  door. 

The  daylight  is  gone. 

The  old  tree  is  badly  broken. 

He  is  riding  in  a  carriage. 

How  slowly  the  snail  crawls  I 

The  melons  are  ripe. 

Where  is  my  knife  ? 


LESSON  XXVI. 

54.  A  word  used  to  show  a  relation  (relation- 
word)  is  a  preposition. 

Thus,  in  the  expression,  "  The  book  is  on  the  table,"  on  is  a  preposition. 
Illustrate  this,  as  in  the  Appendix,  "  Method  for  Lesson  XIV." 

55.  Exercise. 

1.  Insert  the  proper  prepositions  in  the  following 
blanks,  and  tell  what  each  preposition  shows  the  rela- 
tion of: — 

Edgar  walked the  garden. 

The  woodpecker  ran the  trunk  of  the  tree. 

I  rode  Providence Boston the 

cars. 

Emma  practised diligence  • two  hours. 

3 


34  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

The  dews the  morning  glitter the  rays 

the  sun. 


He  spoke different  subjects. 

2.  Write  sentences  containing  the  prepositions  down, 
among,  upon,  between,  over,  against,  by,  under, , 

>  j )  ~"~          ,  • 

3.  Correct  the  following  examples  in  all  respects : — 
there's  five  agoin'  already — aint  it  fun — ther  aint  no- 
thin'  at  all — i  left  my  pen  to  hum — them  is  the  fellers — 
be  you  goin  jist  now — us  fellers  done  all  the  work — sich 
doin's  mustn't  be  in  these  grounds — i  disremember  them 
things  you  told  me— have  you  got  your  seeds  we  have  got 
ourn. 

LESSON  XXVII. 

56.  A  word  used  to  connect  (connecting-word) 
is  a  conjunction. 

Illustrate  this  by  taking  two  objects  in  the  hand,  and  show  that  we 
connect  the  names  in  speaking  when  we  connect  the  things  in  thinking 
of  them.  Thus,  this  pen  and  pencil. 

57.  A  word  used  to  express  feeling  or  emotion 
(emotion-word)  is  an  interjection. 

Thus,  in  "Alas!  he  is  gone,"  alas  is  an  interjection. 

58.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  conjunctions  in  these  examples,  and 
tell  what  they  connect : — 

The  teacher  and  the  scholars  are  present. 

Washington  always  decided  wisely  and  justly. 

The  pen  or  the  ink  is  poor. 

Gertrude  has  neither  father  nor  mother. 

I  have  not  a  slate,  but  a  book. 

Arnold  is  not  angry,  but  sad. 


LESSON    TWENTY-SEVENTH.  35 

2.  Point  out  the  interjections  in  the  following  exam- 
ples : — 

What!  is  it  possible? 

Alas !  alas !  my  axe  is  lost. 

Adieu !  my  native  land,  adieu ! 

Ah  me !  I  fear  the  worst. 

Hail!  hail  to  thee,  great  chief! 

O  thoughts  ineffable !  O  visions  blest ! 

3.  Write  sentences   containing  the  conjunctions  and 
interjections, — but,  and,  if,  than,  because ;  ah,  hurra,  oh, 
alas. 

4.  Write  sentences  containing — 
(1.)  A  noun,  a  verb,  an  adverb. 
(2.)  A  noun,  a  verb,  a  participle. 

(3.)  A  noun,  a  verb,  and  two  adjectives  connected  by  a 
conjunction. 

(4.)  An  adjective  used  in  the  predicate. 

(5.)  A  preposition  and  a  participle. 

(6.)  One  noun  joined  to  another  to  limit  it. 

(7.)  An  adjective  used  to  limit,  and  a  noun  in  the  pre- 
dicate. 

(8.)  A  noun  to  limit,  and  an  adjective  in  the  predicate. 

Let  this  kind  of  exercise  be  continued,  if  needed. 


36  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


SUBDIVISIONS,  PROPERTIES,   AND    CHANGES 
OF  WORDS. 

LESSON  XXVIII. 

59.  A  noun  which   applies  to  an  individual 
object  is  a  proper  noun. 

60.  A  noun  which  may.  apply  to  each  indi- 
vidual of  a  class  of  objects  is  a  common  noun. 

In  these  two  paragraphs,  the  point  is  to  show  that  an  object  may  have 
a  name  as  one  of  a  class,  or,  in  case  of  important  objects,  a  name  of  its 
own.  Thus,  boy  is  a  name  applying  to  any  boy,  but  Herbert  denotes  some 
particular  boy. 

61.  Exercise. 

1.  Fill  these  blanks,  the  first  with  a  common  noun, 
the  second  with  a  proper  : — 

A was  fought  in . 

What flows  into  the ? 

A sailed  across  the . 

2.  Fill  these  blanks,  and  tell  what  kind  of  nouns  you 
insert : — 

is  walking  with  his . 

The commanded  the to  march  to . 

is  situated  on  an . 

3.  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  proper  noun. 

4.  Correct  these  examples : — 

give  me  my  book  and  i  will  give  you  yourn — hisn  aint 
right — mighty  little  have  I  got — shet  the  door  and  set 
down — o  what  a  blunder  that  is — have  you  been  chawing 
gum — it's  good  ef  you  eat  it  unbeknown. 


LESSON   THIRTIETH.  37 


LESSON  XXIX. 

62.  Ajioun  or  a  pronoun  usually  changes  its 
form  when  it  represents  more  than  one  object. 

63.  When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  represents  a 
single  object,  it  is  of  the  singular  number. 

64.  When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun   represents 
more   than   one   object,    it    is   of    the    plural 
number. 

Thus,  in  "He  gave  me  an  apple"  he,  me,  and  apple  are  of  the  singular 
number ',  but  in  "  They  gave  us  some  apples,"  they,  us,  and  apples  are  of 
the  plural  number.  Illustrate  this  distinction  by  means  of  objects,  as  in 
Appendix  (00). 

65.  Exercise. 

1.  Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  : — 
Paper,  boy,  girl,  rose,  house,  thrush,  marsh,  box,  bush, 

table,  church,  piano,  knife,  wife,  bath,  thief,  fife,  five, 
sheaf,  fly,  cry,  glory,  ally. 

2.  Write  three  sentences  containing  each  a  plural  noun, 
and  three  containing  each  a  singular  noun. 


LESSON  XXX. 

66.  In  speaking,  there  are  three  parties,  called 
persons,  —  the  spealter,  the  Iiearer,  and  the 
object  spolsen  of* 


Thus,  when  I  say  to  you,  "  Herbert  is  writing/'  /  denotes  the  speaker, 
ybti  the  hearer,  and  Herbert  the  object  spoken  of. 

67.  The  first  person  represents  the  speaker. 

68.  The  geeosid  person  represents  the  hearer. 


38  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

69.  The  third  person  represents  the  object 
spoken  of. 

Thus,  in  the  example  above,  /  is  of  the  first  person,  yoicof  the  second, 
and  Herbert  of  the  third. 

An  object  must  be  spoken  of  (10)  to  be  represented  at  all  in  the  sen- 
tence. Hence  the  first  and  the  second  person  would  never  appear  in  the 
sentence  unless  they  were  in  some  way  spoken  of.  In  the  first  person,  the 
object  spoken  o/is  the  speaker;  in  the  second,  the  hearer;  in  the  third,  a, 
third  party,  differing  from  both. 


70.  Exercise. 

1.  Is  the  speaker  or  the  hearer  represented  in  the  fol- 
lowing examples?     Is  there  any  thing  in  them  to  show 
who  the  speaker  or  the  hearer  is?     What  are  the  objects 
spoken  of?     Must  there  be  a  speaker  for  each  ? 

James  is  coming.  Time  is  money.  Honesty  is  the  best 
policy.  The  truth  will  triumph. 

2.  Is  the  speaker  or  the  hearer  represented  in  the  fol- 
lowing examples?    What  represents  the  objects  spoken  of? 
Tell  what  two   parties   (O6)   are  represented   in   each. 
What  party  is  not  represented  ? 

I  am  writing.  Are  you  reading  ?  We  shall  be  present. 
I  will  certainly  go.  Thou  art  beside  thyself. 

3.  Among  the  following  examples,  tell  those  in  which 
the  speaker  or  the  hearer  is  represented.     Are  there  any 
in  which  the  object  spoken  of  is  not  represented?     Are 
there  any  in  which  the  speaker  or  the  hearer  is  not  repre- 
sented ?     Are  there  any  in  which  more  than  one  object  is 
spoken  of? 

The  kite  is  flying.  You  may  see  it.  Where  is  Wil- 
liam ?  Have  you  seen  the  eclipse  ?  I  have  bought  you  a 
book.  Jane  told  you  to  give  me  her  pen. 


LESSON   THIRTY-FIRST.  39 


LESSON  XXXI. 

71.  To  represent  the  three  persons,  we  employ 
personal  pronouns. 

By  examples,  the  teacher  will  readily  show  that  the  third  person  may 
first  be  represented  by  name;  then,  to  avoid  repetition,  by  the  pronouns 
he,  she,  or  it; — that  the  first  and  the  second  person  are  invariably  repre- 
sented by  pronouns,  to  avoid  the  ambiguity  which  would  ensue  from  the 
use  of  the  noun.  Thus,  if  George,  intending  to  speak  of  himself,  should 
say,  "  George  is  playing  croquet,"  the  hearer  would  think  he  meant  some 
other  George.  So  of  the  second  person. 


72.  Exercise. 
1.  Learn  the  following  list  of  personal  pronouns  :  — 

SIMPLE. 

Singular,  Plural. 

First  Person    ...   I.  We. 

Second  Person  .  .  Thou.  Ye  or  you. 

Third  Person  .  .  .  He,  she,  or  it.  They. 


Singular.  Plural. 

First  Person    .  .   .  Myself.  Ourselves. 

Second  Person  .  .  Thyself,  yonrself.  Yourselves. 

Third  Person  .  .   .   Himself,  herself,  Themselves. 
itself. 

2.  How  should  the  object  spoken  of  be  represented  in 
the  following  examples  ?  — 

Stephen  bought  a  top,  carried  the  top  home,  and  played 
with  the  top.  Sarah  invited  Ellen  to  a  picnic,  and  re- 
quested Ellen  to  invite  Ellen's  cousin.  Henry  found  a 
question  which  Henry  could  not  answer. 

Should  it  be  represented  by  the  pronoun  in  every  in- 
stance ? 


40  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

3.  How  should  William  speak  of  himself  in  these  ex- 
amples ? — 

Give  William  (meaning  himself)  a  slate.  William 
attends  the  grammar-school.  William  is  studying  arith- 
metic. 

Why  should  a  pronoun  be  used  in  every  instance? 
Which  of  the  three  parties  (66)  does  William  represent  ? 
Is  he  spoken  of  ?  By  whom? 

4.  How  should  Alice  be  represented  as  the  one  spoken 
to  in  these  examples  ? — 

Alice  may  bring  Alice's  pen  and  ink,  and  Alice  may 
write  a  letter  to  Alice's  sister. 

5.  Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  examples  with  the 
proper  pronouns,  and  tell  why  the  same  Walter  is  repre- 
sented by  different  pronouns  : — 

"  Come,"  says  Walter,  " am  ready  for  a  ride." 

Walter,  when  are  —    —  coming  home  ? 

Walter  is  very  ingenious ;   has  made  a  little 

printing-press. 

Draw  from  the  pupil  the  conclusion  that  the  pronoun  itself  must  be 
changed  when  the  personal  relation  of  the  same  individual  changes. 

5.  Give  pronouns  to  represent  these  nouns : — 

(1.)    As  object  spoken  of: — house,  houses;  tree,  trees; 

boy,  boys  ;  lady,  ladies  ;  duck,  ducks  ;  church,  churches ; 

bear,  bears;  man,  men  ;  -        — , —     — ;  , ; 


Why  does  the  pronoun  change  its  form  to  represent  the 
words  between  the  semicolons  ?  In  what  respect  does  it 
agree  with  the  nouns  ? 

(2.)  As  party  speaking,  or  spoken  to : — Alfred,  Alfred 
and  Silas ;  Jonas,  Jonas  and  Emory ;  Isaac,  Isaac,  Na- 
than, and  David  ;  —  — ,  —  — , , . 

Let  the  pupil  draw  the  conclusion,  from  these  changes,  as  to  the  agree- 
ment of  the  pronoun  with  the  noun. 


LESSON   THIRTY-SECOND.  41 

6.  In  the  following  examples,  let  the  subject  in  each  be- 
come first,  second,  or  third  person,  singular  or  plural 
number,  and  mark  the  changes  in  the  verb : — 

Philip  is  flying  a  kite.  Do  you  see  the  old  farm-house  ? 
I  am  very  fond  of  mignonette.  Carroll  is  an  excellent 
carpenter ;  he  is  constantly  employed.  Hubert  is  gather- 
ing pond-lilies  ;  how  fragrant  they  are ! 

Let  the  pupil  observe  that  these  changes  follow  the  changes  in  person 
and  number  of  the  subject. 

LESSON  XXXII. 

73.  A  different  pronoun  must  be  used  when 
the  object  spoken  of  is  male,  female,  or  nei- 
ther male  nor  female. 

Thus,  for  "Henry  rides,"  we  have,  he  rides;  for  "Mary  sings/'  she 
sings ;  for  "  Steel  is  hard/*  it  is  hard. 

74.  The  distinction  of  nouns  or  pronouns  in 
regard  to  sex  is  called  gender. 

75.  The  masculine  gender  denotes  a  male. 

76.  The  feminine  gender  denotes  &  female. 

77.  The  neuter  gender  denotes  an  object 
neither  male  nor  female. 

78.  Exercise. 

1.  In  the  following  examples  point  out  the  nouns  and 
the  pronouns,  and  tell  the  person,  the  number,  and  the 
gender  of  each  : — 

Pigeons  fly  in  such  numerous  flocks  that  they  often 
break  down  the  branches  of  the  trees  when  they  alight. 

Virginia  sketches  beautifully  ;  she  studies  nature. 

John  is  so  lame  that  he  is  obliged  to  ride  to  school. 


42 

That  engraving  is  very  fine ;  I  intend  to  buy  it. 
Have  you  concluded  to  purchase  that  house  ? 
We  must  visit  Niagara  Falls. 

2.  Write  sentences  containing  the  following  pronouns : — 
I,  you,  he,  she,  it,  we,  they,  and  ye. 

3.  Eepresent  the  following  nouns  by  appropriate  pro- 
nouns : — Arnold,   Cornelia,   grandfather,   hens,  chicken, 
chisel,  parents. 

Let  the  pupil  observe  the  agreement  of  the  pronoun  with  its  noun  in 
person,  number,  and  gender* 


LESSON  XXXIII. 

79.  different  forms  of  the  same  pronoun  are 
used  to  represent  the   noun  in  its  several  re- 
lations to  other  words. 

Thus,  put  a  pronoun  for  Henry  in  these  examples, — "  Henry  is  read- 
ing;" "I  saw  Henry;"  "Henry's  cap  is  torn," — and  you  have,  "He  is 
reading ;"  "  I  saw  him ;"  "  His  cap  is  torn." 

80.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  may  have  one  of  three 
different  relations,  called  case. 

81.  The  nominative  ease  is   used  as   the 
subject,  and  answers  the  question  who?  or  what? 

82.  The  possessive  ease  is  used  before  an- 
other noun  to  limit  it  by  denoting  possession. 

83.  The  objective  case  is  used  after  a  verb 
or  a  preposition,  and  answers  the  question  whom  ? 
or  what? 

Thus,  in  the  example,  "Jane  saw  Henry's  kite,"  Jane  is  in  the  nomi- 
native case,  it  answers  the  question,  Who  saw?  kite  is  in  the  objective 
case,  it  shows  what  she  saw ;  Henry's  is  in  the  possessive  ease,  it  shows 
tchose  kite. 


LESSON    THIRTY-FOURTH.  43 

84.  Exercise. 

1.  Give  the  case  of  the  following  nouns: — 
Harriet  is  in  her  garden. 

Jungles  abound  in  Hindostan. 

Merton's  dog  has  bitten  a  child. 

I  bought  the  pencils  at  Clark's. 

I  have  read  Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States. 

2.  Put  pronouns  in  place  of  the  following  nouns  in 
Italics,  and  thus  determine  the  case  by  the  form  of  the 
pronoun : — 

Henry  guided  Arthur.     Murphy's  dog  is  dead.     Gifford 
bought  a  cow.     The  hen  laid  ten  eggs. 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

85.  A  verb  which  takes  an  objective  case  im- 
mediately after  it  is  a  transitive  verb. 

Thus,  in  "  I  found in  the  orchard,"  we  cannot  use  he,  she,  or  hia, 

but  must  use  him,  her,  or  it,  to  fill  the  blank.     These  are  in  the  objective 
case ;  and  so  would  be  any  word  that  did  not  change  its  form. 

86.  A  verb  which  does  not  take  an  objective 
immediately  after  it  is  an  intransitive  verb. 

Thus,  in  the  examples,  "The  stars  set j"  "  The  trees  bend /' 

no  word  is  needed  to  complete  the  meaning. 


87.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  transitive  and  the  intransitive  verbs 
in  the  following  examples: — 
The  owl  sits  upon  the  tree. 
Gertrude  has  finished  her  picture. 
The  pears  dropped  from  the  tree. 
The  sun  shines  upon  the  water. 


44  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

The  fire  lias  scorched  the  grass. 
The  robin  is  feeding  her  young. 


LESSON  XXXV. 

88.  Every  transitive  verb  requires  two  parties, 
— the  actor,  and  the  receiver  of  the  action. 

Thus,  in  "  John  struck  William,"  John  is  the  actor,  and  William  the 
receiver  of  the  action. 

89.  When  the  actor  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence, 
the  verb  is  in  the  active  voice. 

Thus,  struck,  above,  is  in  the  active  voice,  because  the  actor  is  the 
subject. 

90.  When  the  receiver  of  the  action  is  the 
subject,  the  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice. 

Thus,  in  "  William  was  struck  by  John,"  was  struck  is  in  the  passive 
voice,  because  the  receiver  of  the  action  is  the  subject. 

91.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  active  and  in  the  passive 
voice  in  these  examples : — 

The  governor  pardoned  the  prisoner. 
The  ship  was  wrecked  upon  the  rocks. 
The  fish  was  caught  with  a  hook. 
The  dog  pursued  the  fox. 
The  branches  were  broken  by  the  wind. 

2.  Change  the  sentences  in  these  examples  by  putting 
the  passive  for  the  active  voice. 

The  committee  visited  the  school. 

The  policeman  caught  the  robber. 

The  sun  melted,  the  snow. 

The  wind  broke  the  branches  of  the  trees. 

The  boy  carried  berries  to  market. 


LESSON   THIRTY-SIXTH.  45 

LESSON  XXXVI. 

92.  An  event  may  be  real,  and  actually 
happen,  or  it  may  be  thought  of  and  be  spoken 

of  as  if  it  had  happened. 

Thus,  if  I  say,  "The  boy  is  playing/'  or,  "Is  the  boy  playing?"  you 
understand  me  to  say  something  or  ask  for  something  that  is  real  or 
actual;  but  if  I  say,  "The  boy  can  play,"  or,  "Can  the  boy  play?" 
it  does  not  mean  that  the  boy  is  actually  playing,— (he*  may  be  asleep) : 
I  merely  think  of  his  playing. 

93.  When  a  verb   asserts  or  inquires  for  an 
action  as  actually  taking  place,  it  is  in  the  in- 
dicative mode. 

Thus,  " The  wind  is  Mowing"  asserts  a  thing  that  really  is  taking 
place. 

94.  When  a  verb  asserts  or  inquires  for  an 
action  which   merely  may,  can,  or   must   take 
place,  it  is  in  the  potential  mode. 

Thus,  when  I  say,  "/  may  go"  it  does  not  mean  that  I  really  am 
going. 

95.  When  a  verb  expresses  a  condition  for 
another  event  and  implies  doubt,  it  is  in  the 
subjunctive  mode. 

Thus,  in  "Jane  will  come,  if  it  do  not  rain,"  the  coming  of  Jane 
depends  upon  whether  or  not  it  will  rain  at  the  time. 

96.  When  a  verb  asserts  a  command  or  an 
entreaty,  it  is  in  the  imperative  mode. 

Thus,  when  I  say,  "  Bring  me  the  chair,"  I  command  something. 

97.  A  verb  with  to  placed  before  it,  expressing 
action  but  not  asserting  it,  is  called  the  iniini- 
tive. 

Thus,  to  read)  to  have  written,  to  walk,  are  infinitives. 


46  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

98.  Exercise. 

1.  Fill  these  blanks  with  verbs,  and  tell  the  mode  of 
each : — 

The  rain falling. 

The  wind from  the  east. 

Arthur Geography. 

The  dog barking  at  the  cat. 

We  will  go.  to  Niagara  if  we home. 

2.  Tell  the  mode  of  the  following  verbs : — 
The  boy  may  catch  a  fish. 

The  tree  is  broken  by  the  wind. 
Come,  Edmund,  play  with  me. 
I  will  go  if  you  will  explain  my  lesson. 
The  leaves  begin  to  fall. 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

99.  An  action  is  said  to  be, — 
Progressive,  when  it  is  represented  as  going 

on. 

Thus,  "  The  boys  are  playing,"  means  that  they  are  actually  playing, 
but  have  not  finished  yet. 

Completed  or  perfect,  when  it  is  represented 
as  finished. 

Thus,  "The  boys  have  played"  means  that  they  are  not  now  actually 
playing,  but  have  finished  their  play. 

Indefinite,  when  it  merely  supposes  a  going 
on  and  a  finishing,  but  does  not  distinctly  state  it. 

Thus,  "  The  boys  played/'  means  that  they  had  a  play,  which  must 
have  leyun,  gone  on,  and  ended. 

100.  When  the  verb  by  its    form  represents 


LESSON   THIRTY-SEVENTH.  47 

the  action  as  taking  place  at  the  time  of  speaking, 
it  is  in  the  present  tense. 

Thus,  "The  boys  are  playing"  (prog.).  "The  boys  have  played"  (com- 
pleted).    "  The  boys  play"  (indef.). 

101.  When  the  verb  by  some  change  of  form 
places  the  action  before  the  time  of  speaking,  it  is 
in  the  past  tense. 

Thus,  "The  boys  were  playing"  (prog.).  "The  boys  had  played"  (com- 
pleted). "  The  boys  played"  (indef.) 

102.  When  the  verb  by  some  change  of  form 
places  the  action  after  the  time  of  speaking,  it  is 
in  the  future  tense. 

Thus,  "  The  boys  will  be  playing"  (prog.).  "  The  boys  will  have  played" 
(perfect).     "  The  boys  will  play  (indef.)." 

103.  In  forming  the  tenses  which  denote  pro- 
gressive action,  the  verb  be  (is,  am,  are,  was,  will 
be,  &c.)   unites  with  the  participle  ending  in 
ing,  which  represents  an  unfinished  act. 

Thus,  "I  am  sitting ;"  "Ho  was  walking ;"  "  They  are  running." 

104.  In  forming  the   tenses  denoting  com- 
pleted action,  the  verb  liave   (have,  had,  will 
have)  unites  with  the  participle  (usually  end- 
ing in  ed)  which  stands  for  a  finished  act. 

Thus,  "  They  have  eaten;"  "  They  will  have  written." 

105.  When  the  past  indef.  (99)  and  the  parti- 
ciple  for  a  finished  act  are  formed  by  adding  ed 
to  the  present  tense,  the  verb  is  regnlar. 

Thus,  Love  gives  us,  by  dropping  the  final  e,  lov ;  then,  by  adding  ed, 
lov-ed,  and  the  participle  ia  the  same. 


48  GKEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

106.  When  the  past  tense  and  the  participle 
for  a  finished  act  are  not  formed  by  adding  ed  to 
the  present,  the  verb  is  irregular. 

Thus,  we  have — present,  bring;  past  indef.  brought;  participle  for 
finished  act,  brought. 


107.  Exercise. 

1.  Give  the  progressive  (98)  state  or  form  of, — blow, 
drive,  reign,  fly,  speak, , , ,  -  — , ,  - 

2.  Give  the  perfect  or  form  for  completed  action  to  the 
same  verbs. 

3.  Give  the  common  or  form  for  indefinite  action  to 
the  same. 

Give  each  in  the  present,  the  past,  the  future. 

4.  Write  upon  the  slate  the  present,  past,  and  future 
of  the  verbs  dive,  rain,  climb,  hop, , , , . 

5.  Give  the  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the  perfect 
tense  to  the  following:  thus, — 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Perfect  Tense. 

Write,  Wrote,  Have  written. 

Play,  -. 

Sing,  . 

Invite,  . 

Love,  . 

Read,  . 

Enjoy,  -  . 

6.  Determine  the  past  tense  and  past  participle  of  the 
following  verbs,  and  tell  which  are  regular  and  which  are 
irregular: — sell, wear,  is  producing,  is  said, fail,  has  given, 
play,  prepare. 


LESSON   THIRTY-EIGHTH.  49 


LESSON  XXXVIII. 

108.  In  speaking  of  two  or  more  objects,  actions, 
or  conditions,  we  often  compare  them  by  means 
of  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 

Thus,  when  I  say,  "  This  pencil  is  longer  than  that/'  it  shows  that  I 
have  compared  two  pencils;  when  I  say,  "Tho  eagle  fliea'swifter  than  the 
dove,"  I  compare  two  actions. 

109.  The  adjective  or  the  adverb,  by  its  form, 
or  by  some  change  of  form,  expresses  the  degree 
of  comparison. 

110.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison : — 
(1.)  The  positive  degree,  used  when  there 

is  no  comparison,  or  when  two  objects  possess 
equal  degrees. 

Thus,  when  I  say,  "This  tree  is  tall;  that  tree  is  tallf"  I  do  not 
compare  them;  but  when  I  say,  "This  tree  is  as  tall  as  that,"  I  compare 
them,  and  show  that  they  have  equal  degrees  of  height. 

(2.)  The  comparative  degree,  used  when 
two  objects,  actions,  or  conditions  possessing 
unequal  degrees  are  compared. 

Thus,  "  This  key  is  heavier  than  that ;"  "  The  weather  is  warmer  in 
autumn  than  in  spring." 

(3.)  The  superlative  degree,  used  when 
one  object,  action,  or  condition  is  compared  with 
two  or  more  of  the  same  kind. 

Thus,  "  The  sun  is  the  brightest  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies." 
Let  the  attention  of  the  pupil  be  directed  to  the  manner  of  forming 
these  degrees,  by  adding  cr,  cst,  and  the  use  of  more,  most,  less,  least. 

4 


60 


111.  Exercise. 


1.  Give  the  degree  of  each  of  the  following  adjectives: — 
Sweet,  older,  merry,  brightest,  more  unhappy,  least  diffi- 
cult, peaceful,  upright. 

2.  Compare  these  adverbs : — swift,  badly,  ill,  well,  finely. 

3.  Fill  the  following  blanks  with  adjectives,  and  tell  the 
degree  of  each : — 

Honesty  is  the policy. 

Be of  your  health. 

Be  not in  well-doing. 

Gerald  is  the of  my  sons. 

Augusta  is than  Constance. 

The toys  are  bought  here. 

4.  Write  the  comparatives  and  superlatives  for  the  fol- 
lowing adjectives  and  adverbs : — 

Wise,  warm,  lovely,  slowly,  noble,  heavily,  beautiful, 
careless,  abruptly,  eloquently. 

5.  Collect  all  the  incorrect  expressions  which  you  hear 
during  this  week,  and  compare  them  with  those  in  (117). 


LESSON  XXXIX. 

112.  The  different  classes  of  words  are  called 
Parts  of  Speech. 

113.  To  parse  a  word  is  to  tell  what  part  of 
speech  it  is,  and  all  that  belongs  to  it. 

114.  To  parse  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  to 
tell,— 

1.  The  part  of  speech. 

2.  What  kind. 

3.  What  person. 

4.  What  number. 


LESSON   THIBTY-NINTH.  51 

5.  What  gender. 

6.  What  case. 

115.  To  parse  a  verb,  tell, — 

1.  What  part  of  speech. 

2.  What  form,  Regular  or  Irregular. 

3.  What  kind,  Transitive  or  Intransitive. 

4.  What  voice. 

5.  What  mode. 

6.  What  tense. 

7.  What  person. 

8.  What  number. 

116.  To  parse  an  adjective  or  an  adverb, 

tell,— 

1.  What  part  of  speech. 

2.  What  degree  of  comparison. 

3.  What  it  belongs  to  or  limits. 

To  parse  a  preposition,  conjunction,  or 
interjection,  tell, — 

1.  What  part  of  speech. 

2.  What  it  connects,  or  how  it  is  used. 

117.  General  Exercise. 

Analyse  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  words : — 

Dreams  have  their  variety. 

You  will  be  sure  of  a  reward. 

The  sisters  charm  with  their  lovely  songs. 

A  blunder  often  makes  a  precedent. 

Hope  is  the  blossom  of  happiness. 

The  blossoms  are  falling  from  the  trees. 

The  wind  sighs  plaintively  around  her  grave. 

The  raging  tempest  swept  away  every  thing  in  its  path. 

Heaven  opened  wide  her  golden  gates. 


52  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

The  wisest  method  has  been  pursued. 

The  children  were  studying  their  lesson  in  Arithmetic. 

The  Mexicans  were  defeated  at  Buena  Vista. 

The  buds  are  swelling  rapidly. 

The  vessel  had  not  arrived  yesterday. 

Mabel  is  the  younger  of  the  two  children. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  actual  expressions  collected  from  a  largo 
number  of  schools.  They  should  be  carefully  corrected. 

2.  Correct  the  following  expressions : — 

'Tain't  no  good.  I  hain't  got  no  writin'  pen.  Did  any 
one  lost  a  pencil?  I've  got  some  on  t'other  side  of  me 
slate.  You  said  'twas  yourn.  Mine  was  writ  better'n  hisn, 
only  he  writ  more  nor  I  did.  Brown  taked  me  net  off. 
Plase  may  I  get  me  slate  pencil  off  of  Quinn  ?  You  be's 
telling  on  him.  Please  may  I  bring  my  slate  to  my  sister  ? 
He  done  it,  too,  marm.  He  is  to  home.  I  wasn't  hittin' 
'em.  Didn't  go  no  place.  He  be's  whispering.  They  are 
thirty-seven  States.  I  don't  want  none.  I  can't  git  it  no 
way.  I  ain't  got  no  book.  Be  them  two  right  ?  I  can't 
see  them  numbers.  I  hurted  me.  I  hain't  going  to  stay 
too.  My  book  is  to  home.  He  took  and  threw  him  down. 
Is  them  right?  I've  got  a  book.  Be  you  coming  to  school  ? 
I  jist  saw  him  as  him  and  me  was  coming  up.  I  am  most 
freezed.  He  went  and  rubbed  it  out.  I  ain't  whispered 
neither.  She's  went  home.  I  am  goin'  to  get  a  hunk  of 
ice.  I  cotched  the  ball.  That  pen  ain't  hern.  You  hadn't 
neither.  He  hit  me  with  a  great  big  large  stone.  May  I 
set  with  Ida  ?  The  lesson  ain't  in  it.  That  boy  what  sat 
on  that  seat  ran  out.  A  veil  what  you  wear  on  your  head. 
I  found  this  'ere  on  the  winder.  Here  she  are !  My  book 
is  all  tored  up.  The  lesson  is  teared  out.  He  be's  all  the 
time  doin'  it.  I  ain't  doing  nothin.  I  seen  them.  He  is 
goin'  to  have  me  tooken  up.  Mother  wanted  to  brung  it 
home.  All  the  hats  ain't  tooken.  She  didn't  say  nothin'. 


LESSON   THIRTY-NINTH.  53 

Hullo,  teacher !  Florie  and  me  went  out  and  drove  hoop. 
Hadn't  there  ought  to  be  a  point?  The  prime  factors  of 
204  ain't  here.  There  ain't  none  struck  out.  Are  them 
close  together  ?  Ain't  it  right  to  multiply  by  them  two  ? 
Be  you  a  goin'  ?  I  ain't  going  to  get  any.  Where  be  I 
goin'  to  set  ?  I  done  you  good.  Me  and  Julia  went  there. 
Them  books  is  mine.  We'll  catch  'em.  James  will  go  if 
he  will  be  let.  I  readed  it.  My  mother  sends  me  to  school 
so  as  not  to  have  no  bother  of  me  to  home:  Run  'long, 
Johnnie.  I  can  larn  you  more  to  home  than  ye'll  ever 
get  here.  She  wouldn't  give  me  none.  He  goes  earlier 
than  me.  I  seen  him  going  up  the  avenue.  That  boy 
what  sets  in  that  chair  there  dropped  his  book.  She  be's 
sick.  I've  larned  it  to  her.  They  couldn't  make  no  sense 
out  of  it  at  all.  I  ain't  comin'.  I  won't  whisper  no  more. 
She  is  prettier  wayed  than  her  sister.  He  never  had  no 
trouble  before.  Charlie  licked  another  feller  in  the  yard 
at  recess.  Somebody  has  took  my  book.  It  done  me  a 
great  deal  of  good.  She  give  me  it.  I  liked  her  lots. 
They  was  goin'  to  git  up.  It's  hern.  She  hadn't  ought  to 
say  so.  He  ain't  sick  neither,  for  I  seen  him  settin'  on  the 
curbstones.  O,  they  thought  it  was  dreadful  cute.  'Tain't 
no  good  if  it  don't  lock  down.  I  like  to  stuck  it  clean 
through  my  hand.  Is  it  the  one  I  got  on?  I  can't  do  it 
nohow.  Sarah  she  said  she  wasn't  comin'  this  afternoon. 
Be  we  a  goin'  home  at  half-past  three?  It's  kind  o'  nice. 
She  jawed  her  mother.  Where  was  we  ?  Be  you  going  ? 
I  can't  make  it  look  good.  I  had  ought  to  have  some 
credit  for  that.  I  have  wrote  two  lines.  I  see  a  box  on 
her  desk,  yesterday.  I  don't  understand  the  way  they 
done  it.  Will  I  have  to  lose  my  seat  ?  I  heard  an  incor- 
rect sentence  and  then  I  went  and  forgot  it.  They  didn't 
have  no  provisions.  My  pen  ain't  good.  How  much  be 
they  (pens)  ?  There  is  a  good  many  that  buys  it.  We 
done  them  over  four  or  five  times. 


PART  II. 
INTERMEDIATE  COURSE. 

[This  course  is  intended  to  be  intermediate  between  the  elementary 
and  the  full  course  in  the  English  Grammar.] 


LESSON  XL. 

118.  English  Grammar  treats  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  English  language. 

119.  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts  : — 
Orthography,    Etymology,    Syntax,     and 
Prosody. 

120.  Orthography    treats    of    elementary 
sounds,  the  letters  which  represent  them,  and 
the   combination   of  letters   into   syllables   and 
words. 

Orthoepy  treats  of  the  proper  pronunciation  of  words. 

121.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification, 
derivation,  and  various  modifications  of  words. 

122.  Syntax  treats  of  the  structure  of  sen- 
tences. 

123.  Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versifica- 
tion. 

Of  what  does  English   Grammar  treat?     How  is  Grammar  divided? 
Of  what  does  Orthography  treat?     Of  what  does  Etymology  treat?     Of 
what  does  Syntax  treat?     Of  what  does  Prosody  treat? 
54 


LESSON    FORTY-FIRST.  66 


OBTHOGRAPHY. 


LESSON  XLL 

ELEMENTARY   SOUNDS. 

124.  Orthography    treats    of   elementary 
sounds,  the  letters  which  represent  them,  and 
the   combination   of  letters   into   syllables   and 
words. 

ELEMENTARY  SOUNDS.   • 

125.  An  elementary  sound  is  the  simplest 
sound  in  the  language. 

Ex. — The  sounds  of  a,  e,  b,  k,  s,  m,  p. 

These  sounds,  about  forty  in  number,  can  be  appreciated  only  when 
represented  to  the  ear.  Let  the  learner  be  taught  to  utter  them  distinctly, 
and  he  will  then  understand  the  following  classification  : 

126.  These   sounds    are   divided   into   three 
classes  : — vocals,  sub  vocals,  and  aspirates. 

127.  The  vocals  consist  of  pure  tone  only. 
Ex. — a,  e,  i,  o,  u. 

128.  The  sub  vocals  consist  of  tone  united 
with  breath. 

Ex. — b,  d,  I,  m,  n,  r. 

What  is  an  elementary  sound?  How  many  elementary  sounds  are 
there?  Into  what  classes  are  the  elementary  sounds  divided?  What  are 
the  vocals  ?  What  are  the  sub  vocals  ? 


56  GBEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

129.   The  aspirates  consist  of  pure  breath 
only. 


130.  Exercise. 

1.  Utter  first  the  word,  and  then  the  element,  printed 
in  Italics. 

Vocals.  —  N-a-me,  f-a-r,  b-a-11,  a-t  ;  ra-e,  m-e-t;  f-t'-ne, 
p-i'-n  ;  s-o-ld,  m-o-ve,  n-o-t  ;  m-w-te,  p-tt-11,  c-u-p  ;  f-cm-nd. 

&  ub  vocals.  —  _S-at,  d-og,  g-o,  j-oy,  Z-ife,  m-an,  n-o,  so-/i<7, 
ba-r,  th-ose,  v-oice,  t«;-ise,  y-eSj  2-one,  a-sure. 

Aspirates.  —  _F-aith,  7i-at,  ar-^,  ^>-ine,  s-un,  £-ake,  i/i-ink, 
e,  c/i-urch,  wh-en. 

2.  In  the  following  examples,  point  out  — 
Five  Vocals.  —  Lake,  life,  pet,  sound,  grove. 

Six  Sub  vocals.  —  Goat,  boy,  wife,  star,  jug,  note. 
Five  Aspirates.  —  Hound,  kite,  thing,  sing,  where. 


LESSON  XLIL 

LETTERS. 

131.  A  letter  is  a  character  used  to  represent 
an  elementary  sound. 

132.  The  English  alphabet  contains  twenty- 
six  letters :— A  a,  B  b,  C  c,  D  d,  E  e,  F  f,  G  g, 
H  h,  I  i,  J  j,  K  k,  L  1,  M  m,  N  n,  0  o,  P  p,  Q  q, 
R  r,  S  s,  T  t,  U  u,  t-v,  W  w,  X  x;  Y  y,  Z  z. 


AVhat  are  the  aspirates?     What  is  a  letter?     How  many  letters  arc 
there  in  the  English  alphabet  ?     Name  them. 


LESSON    FORTY-SECOND.  57 

133.  Those  letters  which  represent  vocals  are 
called  vowels.     They  are  a,  6,  ?',  o;  u,  and  some- 
times w  and  y. 

134.  Those  letters  which  represent  sub  vocals 
and  aspirates  are  called  consonants. 

135.  The  consonants  are — 
Snbvocals — &,  d,  g,  j^  Z,  m,  n,  r,  v,  z. 
Aspirates — f,  h,  k,  c,  q,  p,  t,  s. 

X  is  a  sub  vocal  when  it  is  equivalent  to  gs,  as  in  exist; 
and  an  aspirate  when  it  is  equivalent  to  ks,  as  in  ivax. 

W  and  Y  are  consonants  (subvocals)  when  they  precede 
a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable. 

Ex. —  Wine,  wet,  yes,  yew. 

In  all  other  cases  they  are  vowels. 

Ex. — Few,  lovely,  bow,  boy. 

136.  Equivalents  are  those  letters  or  com- 
binations of  letters  which  represent   the   same 
sound. 

Ex. — jN"-a-me,  g-ay,  ih-ey,  v-ain,  g-cm-ge. 

137.  A  variable  letter  is  one  which  repre- 
sents several  different  sounds. 

Ex. — F-a-me,  f-a-r,  f-a-t,  h-a-11,  wh-a-t,  li-a-r. 

138.  A  silent  letter  is  one  which  has   no 
sound. 

Ex. — Pe-a-rl, 


What  are  vowels  ?  Name  them.  What  are  consonants  ?  Name  them. 
What  are  equivalents  ?  Give  examples.  What  is  a  variable  letter?  Give 
examples.  What  is  a  silent  letter  ?  Give  examples. 


58  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


139.  Exercise* 

1.  Tell  which  letters  are  vowels,  and  which  are  conso- 
nants, in  the  following  words : — 

Name,  war,  come,  peace,  tree,  fish,  good,  live,  old,  sad, 
young,  wine,  said,  yet,  win,  new,  gay,  day. 

2.  Tell  which  of  the  following  letters  represent  vocals, 
which  subvocals,  and  which  aspirates : — 

t,  r,  v,  a,  f,  g,  m,  c,  d,  k,  p,  o,  w,  s,  h,  y,  x,  1,  e,  j. 

3.  Give  the  sounds  of  a  in  name,  war,  bat,  cabbage, 
fare,  all,  what;  of  e  in  mete,  met,  they,  there,  her;  of  i 
in  pine,  pin,  sir ;  of  u  in  mute,  put,  but,  fur ;  of  c  in  mice, 
sacrifice,  cat;   of/  in  fare,  of;   of  g  in  give,  go,  gem, 
George ;  of  r  in  read,  rude,  bar,  far ;  of  s  in  sit,  sin,  was, 
does,  measure,  pleasure ;  of  a;  in  wax,  example. 


LESSON  XLIII. 

COMBINATIONS   OF   LETTERS. 

140.  Two  or  more  vowels  may  unite. 
Ex. — S-ou-nd,  \)-uoy. 

141.  Two  or  more  consonants  may  unite. 
Ex. — Bl-e-nd,  thr-ee. 

142.  A  consonant  may  unite  with  a  vowel. 
Ex. — An,  no,  did,  call. 

143.  A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels 
in  one  syllable. 

Ex. —  Ou  in  sound,  oi  in  voice. 

In  what  three  ways  may  letters  be  united?     What  is  a  diphthong? 


LESSON   FORTY-THIRD.  59 

144.  A  proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which 
both  vowels  are  sounded. 

Ex. —  Ou  in  thou. 

145.  An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which 
one  of  the  vowels  is  silent. 

Ex. — A  in  heat. 

146.  A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three 
vowels  in  one  syllable. 

Ex. — Eau  in  beauty. 

147.  A  proper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  the 
three  vowels  are  sounded.. 

Ex. —  Uoy  in  buoy. 

148.  An   improper   triphthong   is   one    in 
which  one  or  two  of  the  vowels  are  silent. 

Ex. — The  ea  in  beauty,  the  ie  in  adieu. 


149.  Exercise. 

4.  Point  out  the  combinations  in  the  following  words : — 
Tell  whether  the  diphthongs  and  triphthongs  are  proper 
or  improper : — 

Fear,  pear,  voice,  sound,  pierce,  receive,  Europe,  people, 
view,  adieu,  beauty,  though,  shine,  when,  whip,  chip, 
phrase,  chaise,  architect,  motion,  partial,  option,  session. 


What  is  a  proper  diphthong?  What  is  an  improper  diphthong? 
What  is  a  triphthong  ?  What  is  a  proper  triphthong  ?  What  is  an  im- 
proper triphthong  ? 


60  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  XLIV. 

SYLLABLES   AND   WORDS. 

150.  A  syllable  is  a  letter  or  a  combination 
of  letters  representing  a  sound  uttered  with  one 
impulse  of  the  voice. 

Ex. — Mat,  mat-ter,  ma-te-ri-aL 

151.  The  essential  part  of  a  syllable  is  a 
vowel. 

By  vowel  is  here  meant  a  vowel-sound,  whether  represented  by  a  single 
vowel,  a  diphthong,  or  a  triphthong. 

152.  A  syllable  may  consist — 

1.  Of  a  Towel ;  as,  a-cre,  ez-ther. 

2.  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  pre- 
fixed ;  as,  6a-sis,  6ri-er,  three,  phthi-sis. 

3.  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  affixed; 

as,  an,  elf,  inter-esfe,  e&rths. 

4.  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  both  pre- 
fixed and  affixed ;  as,  n-oo-n,  tr-u-th,  thr-u~sts. 

153.  A  word  consists  of  one  syllable  alone,  or 
of  two  or  more  syllables  united. 

Ex. — Faith,  faith-ful. 

154.  A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  mono- 
syllable. 

Ex. — Pen,  boy,  care. 

What  is  a  syllable?  What  is  the  essential  part  of  a  syllable?  Of 
what  may  a  syllable  consist?  What  is  a  word?  What  is  a  monosylla- 
ble? 


LESSON    FORTY-FOURTH.  61 

155.  A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dis- 
syllabic. 

Ex. — Na-ture,  care-ful. 

156.  A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  tri- 
syllable. 

Ex. — Nat-u-ralj  care-ful-ness. 

157.  A  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  is  called 
a  polysyllabic. 

Ex. —  Un-nat-u-ralj  con-sci-en-tious-ness. 

158.  A  word  in  no  way  derived  from  another 
is  a  primitive  word. 

Ex. — Form,  watch. 

159.  A  word  formed  by  joining  to  a  primitive 
some  letter  or  syllable  to  modify  its  meaning,  is  a 
derivative  word. 

Ex. — .Re-form,  v?atch-ful. 

160.  A  word  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more 
simple  words  is  called  a  compound  word. 

Ex. —  Watchman,  father-in-law. 

161.  Exercise. 

1.  Divide  the  following  words  into  syllables  : — 
Detection,  inability,  commotion,  though,  relate,  unpre- 
meditated, thoughtful. 

2.  Tell  which  of  the  following  words   are  primitive, 
which  derivative,  and  which  compound : — 

What  is  a  dissyllable  ?  What  is  a  word  of  three  syllables  called? 
What  is  a  polysyllable?  What  is  a  primitive  word?  What  is  a  de- 
rivative word?  What  is  a  compound  word? 


62  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Bright,  fair,  playful,  joyless,  income,  book-store,  cloud- 
capped,  ink,  form,  uniform,  housetop,  dreary. 

3.  Form  derivative  words  from  the  following  primitives, 
and  draw  a  line  under  the  added  syllable  or  letter : — 

Hope,  fear,  peer,  weak,  form,  grace,  poet,  weep. 

4.  Form  compound  words  by  joining  some  appropriate 
word  to  each  of  the  following : — 

Chest,  bank,  fire,  weed,  toll,  work,  land,  busy. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


LESSON  XLV. 

DEFINITIONS. 

162.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification, 
derivation,  and  various  modifications  of  words. 

163.  A  word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea,  and  is 
either  spoken  or  written. 

164.  Words  are  divided  into  eight  classes,  called 
Parts  of  Speech. 

165.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are  the  STonii,  the 
Adjective*  the  Pronoun,  the  Verb,  the  Ad- 
verb, the  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and 
the  Interjection. 

Of  what  does  Etymology  treat?    What  is  a  word?    How  are  words 
divided?     How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there?     What  are  they? 


LESSON    FORTY-FIFTH.  63 

166.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object. 
Ex. — Peachy  Frank,  Salem. 

167.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or 
qualify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

Ex. —  Wise,  sweet,  this,  many. 

168.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the 
place  of  a  noun. 

Ex. — I,  he,  who,  they. 

169.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being, 
action,  or  state. 

Ex. — Be,  run,  sleep,  is  written. 

170.  An  adverb  is  used  to  modify  the  mean- 
ing  of  a   verb,    an   adjective,    a   participle,   or 
another  adverb. 

Ex.— Slowly,  first^  far. 

171.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show 
the  relation  between  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  and 
some  other  word. 

Ex. — Above,  with,  into,  under. 

172.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  con- 
nect either  words,  phrases,  or  propositions. 

Ex. — And,  but,  or,  either. 

173.  An   interjection   is   used   to   express 
some  emotion  of  the  mind. 

Ex. —  0!  alas!  ah!  alack! 

What  is  a  noun?  An  adjective?  A  pronoun?  A  verb?  What  is  an 
adverb?  What  is  a  preposition?  What  is  a  conjunction?  What  is  au 
interjection? 


64  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  XLVI. 

NOUNS. 

174.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object. 
Ex. — Home,  tree,  Boston,  goodness. 

The  word  "  object"  is  here  used  to  denote  every  species 
of  existence,  whether  material  or  immaterial. 

The  name  of  any  thing  which  has,  or  may  be  supposed 
to  have,  an  independent  existence,  is  a  noun.  Hence  the 
name  of  a  quality,  taken  alone,  or  apart  from  any  object, 
is  a  noun  ;  as,  brightness,  smoothness. 

175.  Nouns    are    divided    into    two    classes, 
Proper,  and  Common. 

176.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  indi- 
vidual object. 

Ex. — James,  Erie,  Wellington. 

177.  A  common  noun  is  the   name  which 
applies  to  each  individual  of  a  class  of  objects. 

Ex. — Man,  boy,  house. 

Under  the  head  of  common  nouns  are  commonly 
reckoned  Collective,  Abstract,  and  Verbal  nouns. 

A  collective  noun  is  one  which,  in  the  singular,  denotes 
more  than  one  object;  as,  army,  family,  flock. 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  an  action 
considered  apart  from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs ;  as, 
goodness,  virtue,  wisdom,  movement. 

A  verbal  noun  is  a  participle  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  He  ' 
was  convicted  of  stealing." 

What  is  a  noun?  What  does  the  word  "object"  denote?  When  is  tho 
name  of  a  quality  a  noun  ?  How  many  classes  of  nouns  are  there?  What 
is  a  proper  noun  ?  What  is  a  common  noun  ?  What  is  a  collective  noun  ? 
What  is  an  abstract  noun  ?  What  is  a  verbal  noun  ? 


LESSON    FORTY-SIXTH.  65 

Any  phrase  or  group  of  words  us§d  to  represent  an  idea 
which  can  be  considered  alone,  is  of  the  nature  of  a  noun 
or  substantive ;  as,  "  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy." 


178.  Exercise.   (1.) 

1.  Select  the  nouns  from  the  following  examples:- — 
Beattie,  the  son  of  a  Scottish  farmer,  was  educated  at 

the  University  of  Aberdeen. 

The  father  of  Michael  Bruce  was  a  weaver  in  Scotland, 
Cyprus  is  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean. 

2.  Tell  which  of  the  nouns  above  are  common,  and 
which  are  proper.     Why? 

3.  Write  a  sentence  containing  two  common  and  two 
proper  nouns. 

4.  Write  upon  your  slates  five  answers  to  the  questions 
in  your  geography  lesson.    Observe  the  Cautions  in 

and  select  the  nouns. 


Exercise.    (2.) 

Exercises  not  numbered  with  heavy  type  are  to  be  omitted  tho  first 
time  going  through  the  book. 

1.  Point  out  the  collective,  abstract,  and  verbal  nouns 
in  the  following  examples : — 

The  hunters  discovered  a  large  herd  of  buffaloes. 
The  school  was  dismissed  at  twelve  o'clock. 
His  greatness  was  excelled  only  by  his  goodness. 
Lying  is  a  degrading  vice. 
We  should  be  forward  in  aiding  the  weak. 

2.  Change    the    following    adjectives    into    abstract 
nouns : — 

Faithful,  hopeful,  rough,  brittle,  sour,  mild. 
5 


LESSON  XLVII. 

179.  To    nouns    belong   Person,   dumber, 
Qender,  and  Case. 

PERSON. 

180.  Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun  which  shows  its  relation  to  the  speaker. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun,  representing  the  object  spoken 
of,  may  be  either  the  speaker  himself,  the  person  spoken 
to  by  the  speaker,  or  merely  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of  by  the  speaker.  Hence  the  three  relations  to  the 
speaker,  called  person. 

181.  There    are    three    persons,    the    first, 
the  second,  and  the  third. 

182.  The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker. 
Ex. — I,  the  commander,  issue  this  general  order. 

183.  The  second  person  denotes  the  person 
spoken  to. 

Ex. — Children,  obey  your  parents. 

184.  The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of. 

Ex. — Thomas  did  come.     The  harvest  is  abundant. 

185.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  the  person  of  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the 
following  examples  • — 

What  belong  to  nouns  ?  What  is  person  ?  What  must  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun  represent?  How  many  persons  are  there?  What  does  the  first 
person  denote?  The  second?  The  third? 


LESSON    FORTY-EIGHTH.  67 

Nero  was  a  tyrant. 

Children,  obey  your  parents. 

The  ferryman  took  us  safely  across  the  river. 

Babylon,  how  art  thou  fallen ! 

Thou  art  the  man. 

My  brothers  delight  in  surf-bathing. 

1,  Paul,  myself  beseech  you. 

2.  Write  ten  sentences  of  your  own,  illustrating  the 
three  persons,  and  correct  any  improper  expressions  which 
you  have  heard. 

LESSON  XLVIIL 

NUMBER. 

186.  Number  is   that   property  of  a   noun 
which  distinguishes  one  object  from  more  than 
one. 

187.  Nouns  have  two  numbers:  the  singular, 
and  the  plural. 

188.  The  singular  number  denotes  but  one 
object. 

Ex. — Horse,  river,  mountain. 

189.  The  plural  number  denotes  more  than 
one  object. 

Ex. — Horses,  rivers,  mountains. 

190.  The    plural    of    nouns    is    regularly 
formed, — 

1.  By  adding  s,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound 
that  can  unite  with  s;  as,  book,  books;  tree,  trees. 

What  is  number?  How  many  numbers  have  nouns?  What  is  the 
singular  number?  What  is  the  plural?  How  is  the  plural  of  nouns 
regularly  formed  ? 


68  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

2.  By  adding  es,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound 
that  cannot  unite  with  s;  as,  box,  boxes;  churchy  churches. 

19  L    The    plural   of  nouns   is   irregulaFly 
formed  in  various  ways : — 

1.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change 
y  into  i  and  add  es;  as,  fly,  flies;    berry,  berries;    body, 
bodies.     If  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  y  is  not  changed ;  as, 
boy,  boys;  toy,  toys;  valley,  valleys. 

2.  Some  nouns  ending  in  f  and  fe  change  these  termi- 
nations to  ve,  and  add  s;  "as,  leaf,  leaves;  loaf,  loaves;  wife, 
wives.     So  also  with  calf,  half,  sheaf,  shelf,  life,  thief,  wharf, 
wolf,  elf,  and  knife.     Other  nouns  in  /  and  fe  form  the 
plural  regularly;  as,  gulf,  gulfs;  roof,  roofs;  fife,  fifes. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es; 
as,  potato,  potatoes ;  cargo,  cargoes.    If  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
s  is  added  j  as,  folio,  folios;  cameo,  cameos. 

4.  The  following  plurals  are  very  irregular: — Child, 
children;  man,  men;  woman,  women;  brother,  brothers  or 
brethren;  mouse,  mice;  die,  dice  (dies,  stamps)  ;  tooth,  teeth; 
foot,  feet;  ox,  oxen;  goose,  geese;  penny,  pence  or  pennies. 

5.  Proper  nouns,  most  abstract  nouns,  and  nouns 
denoting   substance,   have   no    plural ;    as,   Providence, 
goodness,  wood,  gold.     Sometimes,  however,  we  say,  "the 
/Stuarts,"  " the  Johnsons" 

6.  In  compound   words,  if  the   principal  word    is 
placed  first,  it  is  varied  to  form  the  plural;    as  courts- 
martial,  sons-in-law ;  but  if  placed  last,  the  final  word  is 
changed  ;  as  pailfuls,  hanol/Ws,  &c. 

7.  ^Letters,  marks,  and  figures  are  pluralizecl   by 
adding  's;  as.  the  a's,  the  9's,  the  -j-'s. 

Give  the  rule  for  nouns  ending  in  y.     In  /and  fe.     Give  the  nil- 
nouns  ending  in  o.     Name  eight  nouns  which  have  very  irregular  plurals. 
What  kind  of  nouns  have  no  plural?     Give  the  rule  for  compound  words. 
What  plurals  take  '»  ? 


LESSON    FORTY-EIGHTH.  69 

8.  Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural ;  as,  tongs, 
riches,  scissors,  embers,  ashes,  bellows,  drawers. 

9.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers ;  as,  dice, 
sheep,  trout,  dozen,  swine,  vermin,  hose,  yoke,  and  others. 

10.  Nouns  derived  from  foreign  languages  often  retain 
their  original  plurals  ,  as,  automaton,  automata;  axis,  axes , 
bandit,  banditti;  beau,  beaux ;  cherub,  cherubim;  focus, foci; 
memorandum,  memoranda;  nebula,  nebulce;  radius,  radii; 
stratum,  strata,  and  others. 

192.  Exercise.    (1.) 

1.  Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns,  and  give  the 
rule  for  the  termination  : — 

Box,  horse,  glove,  rose,  torch,  grass,  oak,  watch. 

2.  Fill  the  following  blanks  with  nouns  in  the  singular 
number : — 

The is  a  noble  animal. 

is  a  virtue. 


He  has  met  his 


The  sun  shines  upon  the . 

is  declared. 

3.  Fill  the  following  blanks  with  plural  nouns :— 

take  to  themselves  wings. 

The are  very  lofty. 

The —  were  well  attended. 

Henry  has  lost  his 


I  am  delighted  with 


4.  Correct  all  the  errors  which  you  have  noted  to-day. 

Exercise.    (2.) 

1.  Give  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns,  with  the 
rules  for  their  formation  : — 

Give  five  nouns  used  only  in  the  plural.     Five  alike  in  both  numbers. 
Five  plurals  from  foreign  languages. 


70  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Lady,  day,   leaf,   hoof,  hero,  ox,  tooth,   spoonful,  x, 
solemn,  focus,  fox,  star,  ally,  alley,  sheep. 
2.  Fill  the  following  blanks  : — 
(1.)  With  proper  nouns  : — 

descended  the  Alps. 

crossed  the  Delaware. 


I  visited 


(2.)  With  collective,  abstract,  or  verbal  nouns : — 

on  the  water  is  pleasant. 

The was  disbanded. 

The was  scattered  by  the  wolves. 

is  a  vice. 

goeth  before  a  fall. 

Our depends  on  ourselves. 

3.  Give  the  number  of  each  noun  in  the  exercise. 


LESSON  XLIX. 

GENDER. 

193.  Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  in 
regard  to  sex. 

194.  There  are  three  genders,  the  mascra» 
line,  the  feminine,  and  the  neuter. 

195.  Nouns  which  denote  males  are  of  the 

masculine  gender. 
Ex. — Man,  king,  hero. 

196.  Nouns  which  denote  females  are  of  the 
feminine  gender. 

Ex. —  Woman,  queen,  heroine. 

What  is  gender?     How  many  genders  are  there?     What  nouns  ara 
of  the  masculine  gendor?     Of  the  feminine? 


LESSON    FORTY-NINTH.  71 

197.  Nouns  which  denote  objects  neither 
male  nor  female,  are  of  the  neuter  gender. 

Ex. — Tree,  rock,  paper. 

Some  nouns  denote  either  male  or  female ;  as,  parent, 
child,  cousin.  These  are  said  to  be  of  the  common  gender; 
but  as  the  gender  must  be  either  masculine  or  feminine, 
and  may  generally  be  determined  by  the  connection,  the 
distinction  is  scarcely  necessary. 

There  are  three  methods  of  distinguishing  the  sexes : — 

1.  By  using  different  words;  as,  bachelor,  maid;  boy, 
girl;  brother,  sister;  father,  mother. 

2.  By  different  terminations ;   as,  count,  countess ; 
actor,  actress;  administrator,  administratrix;  hero,  heroine. 

3.  By  prefixes  and  suffixes ;  as,  land-ford,  land-faefy; 
gentle-??iaft,  gentle-u'o??ia?i ;  /ie-goat,  she-goat ;  wan-servant, 
maid-servant. 

198.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  the  gender  of  the  following  nouns : — 

Sailor,  cap,  lioness,  captain,  nun,  widow,  brother,  sister, 
bridge,  priest,  wizard,  countess. 

2.  Give  the  feminine  of — 

Man,  abbot,  hero,  tiger,  heir,  prophet,  male,  widower, 
husband,  host,  master,  king. 
The  masculine  of — 
Empress,  songstress,  mother,  sister,  actress. 

3.  Fill  these  blanks,  the  first  two  with  common  nouns 
in  the  masculine  gender ;  the  next  two  with  proper  nouns, 
one  masculine  and  one  feminine ;  the  next  two  with  neuter 
nouns : — 

is  patient. 

reigns  king  of  beasts. 

What  nouns jare  of  the  neuter  gender?  What  is  eaid  of  the  common 
gender?  What  thre-p  methods?  of  dietingtilsfling  the  sexes? 


72  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


•  was  a  distinguished  poet. 

•  entertained  her  guests  with  grace. 


Ella  has  lost  her  • 

Harold  is  reading  Cicero's . 

4.  Write,  correct,  or  improve  any  faulty  sentences  which 
you  have  collected. 

Let  the  teacher  persist  in  correcting  all  erroneous  expressions. 


LESSON  L. 

CASE. 

199.  Case  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun  to  other  words. 

200.  There  are  three  cases,  the  nominative* 
the  possessive,  and  the  objective. 

201.  The  nominative  case  is  the  simplest 
form  of  the  noun,  and  is  commonly  the  subject 
of  a  proposition. 

Ex. —  George  speaks.     The  door  was  shut. 

202.  The   possessive   case  denotes  the  rela- 
tion of  property  or  possession. 

Ex. — David's  harp. 

203.  When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  follows  a 
transitive  verb,  or  a  preposition,  it  is   in   the 
objective  case. 

Ex. — Thomas  opened  his  knife.    The  bird  sat  on  the  tree. 

What  is  case?     How  many  cases  are  there?    What  is  the  nominative 
ease?     What  is  the  possessive  case?     The  objective? 


LESSON   FIFTIETH.  73 

FORMATION  OF  THE  POSSESSIVE. 

204.  The  possessive  singular  of  nouns  is  regu- 
larly formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  (')   and 
the  letter  s  to  the  nominative. 

Ex. — Man's,  Calvin's. 

205.  When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe 
only  is  added. 

Ex. — Boys',  ladies',  kittens'. 

But  the  apostrophe  and  s  are  both  added  when 
it  ends  in  any  other  letter. 

Ex. — Men's,  women's,  brethren's. 

The  possessive  case  is  known  by  its  form.  But  the 
forms  of  the  nominative  and  objective  are  alike,  and  must 
be  determined  by  their  relation  to  other  words. 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

206.  The  declension  of  a  noun  is  its  variation 
to  denote  number  and  case. 


EXAMPLES. 

1.  BOY. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Singular. 

Boy. 
Boy's. 
Boy. 

Plural. 

Boys. 
Boys'. 
Boys. 

2.  FLY. 

Nom. 
Poss. 

Singular. 

Fly. 
Fly's. 

Plural. 

Flies. 
Flies'. 

Obj. 

Fly. 

Flies. 

How  is  the  possessive  regularly  formed  ?  Give  the  rule  for  the  pos- 
sessive plural.  Which  case  is  known  by  its  form  ?  What  is  the  declen- 
sion of  a  noun  ?  Decline  Boy.  Fly. 


74        GBEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
n^ 

3.  JOHN. 

Singular. 

John. 
John's. 

-Trklrn 

Plural. 

wanting. 

* 

207.  MODEL  FOR  PARSING  A  NOUN. 

"  The  dog  barks." 
Dog  is  (1)  a  noun ;  it  is  the  name  of  an  object. 

(2)  common ;  it  is  the  name  of  each  individual  of  a 

class  of  objects. 

(3)  third  person ;  it  is  spoken  of. 

(4)  singular  number ;  it  denotes  but  one. 

(5)  masculine  gender ;  it  is  the  name  of  a  male. 

(6)  nominative  case;  it  is  the  subject  of  a  proposi- 

tion. 

(7)  Rule  1. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun,  used  as  the  sub- 

ject of  a  proposition,  must  be  in  the  nomina- 
tive case. 

208.  Exercise. 

1.  Parse  the  nouns  in  the  following  examples  :* — 
England  was  invaded  by  the  Normans. 
The  rain  descended. 
The  forests  disappear. 
I  have  seen  Emily's  pet  fawn. 
Theodore's  horse  is  lame. 
Hollo  went  into  the  garden. 
The  mountains  raise  their  heads. 

Decline  John.     Parse  dog  in  the  sentence,  "  The  dog  barks." 


*  The  rules  may  be  omitted  the  first  time  going  through. 


LESSON   FIFTY-FIRST.  75 

Florence  loved  little  Paul. 
Eollo  sat  by  his  father's  side. 
2.  "Write  five  sentences  about  your  walk  to  school. 

LESSON  LI. 

ADJECTIVES. 

209.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or 
qualify  a  noun. 

Ex. — A  good  scholar ;  a  costly  jewel. 

210.  Adjectives  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
limiting,  and  qualifying* 

211.  A  limiting  adjective  is  used  to  define 
or  restrict  the  meaning  of  a  noun,  without  ex- 
pressing any  of  its  qualities. 

Ex. — The  house;  those  men. 

212.  A  qualifying    adjective    is  one  which 
limits  the  meaning  of  a  noun,  by  denoting  some 
property  or  quality. 

Ex. — A  virtuous  man ;  a  large  tree. 

To  this  class  of  adjectives  belong  the  participles  which  have  the  big- 
nification  of  the  verb  and  the  construction  of  the  adjective.  When  the 
participle  is  placed  before  the  noun  which  it  modifies,  it  is  called  a  par- 
ticipial adjective;  as,  "  the  rising  sun."  When  it  is  placed  after  the  noun 
to  which  it  relates,  it  is  called  a  participle;  as,  "the  sun  rising  in  the 
east." 

Any  phrase  or  group  of  words  added  to  a  noun  to  limit  its  application 
or  restrict  its  meaning,  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective;  as,  "The  people 
of  the  United  States  of  America." 

What  is  an  adjective?  How  are  adjectives  divided?  What  is  a 
limiting  adjective?  What  is  a  qualifying  adjective?  What  is  said  of  the 
participle  ? 


76  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

213.  limiting  adjectives    are    divided  into 
three  classes,  articles,  pronominal  adjectives,  and 
numeral  adjectives. 

214.  The  articles  are  a  or  an,  and  the. 

215.  Tlie  is  called  the  definite  article,  because 
it  points  out  some  particular  object. 

Ex. — The  sun. 

216.  A9  or  an9  is  called  the  indefinite  article, 
because    it   does   not   point   out   any  particular 
object. 

Ex. — A  pen ;  an  orchard. 

217.  An  is  used  before  a  vowel  sound,  and  a 
before  a  consonant  sound. 

Ex. — A  union,  an  hour;  a  ewer,  an  eagle. 

218.  Pronominal  adjectives  are  those  which, 
without  the  use  of  the  article,  may  represent  a 
noun  when  understood. 

Ex. — This  (book)  is  mine ;  that  is  yours. 

The  principal  pronominal  adjectives  are:— This,  that,  these, 
those,  former,  latter,  which,  what,  each,  every,  either,  neither,  some,  one, 
none,  any,  all,  such,  much,  both,  few,  first,  last,  little,  many,  own,  same, 
several,  sundry,  enough. 

219.  Numeral    adjectives    are   those   which 
express  number. 

Ex. —  One,  tivo,  third,  fourth. 

Into  what  classes  are  limiting  adjectives  divided?  What  are  the  arti- 
cles ?  What  is  said  of  "  the"  ?  Of  "  a"  or  "  an"  1  When  is  "  an"  used  ? 
When  "a"?  What  are  pronominal  adjectives?  What  are  the  principal 
pronominal  adjectives?  What  are  numeral  adjectives? 


LESSON    FIFTY-FIRST.  77 

220.  Numeral  adjectives  are  divided  into  car- 
dinal, which  denote  how  many; 

Ex. —  One,  two,  three,  &c. 

Ordinal,  which  show  which  one  of  a  series; 

Ex. — First,  second,  third,  &c. 

And  multiplicative,  which  show  repetition. 

Ex. — Twofold,  threefold,  &c. 


221.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  the  kind  of  adjectives  in  the   following   sen- 
tences : — 

These  scholars  are  very  studious. 
Anne  is  reading  Roman  history. 
I  saw  a  large  flock  of  birds. 
Two  of  the  boys  arrived  punctually. 
Dr.  Kane  explored  the  Arctic  regions. 
Albert  took  the  first  premium. 
Few  of  the  committee  were  present. 
I  am  reading  a  very  interesting  book. 

2.  Fill   the  blanks    in   the   following  examples   with 
adjectives,  and  tell  the  kind  of  each: — 

men  sit  at  their  doors. 

The wind  breathes  gently  forth. 

events  cast  their  shadows  before. 

The  traveller  crossed  the sea. 

The  nest  contained robins. 

3.  What  words  are  you  in  the  habit  of  mispronouncing? 
Write  them,  and  repeat  the  correct  pronunciation  often. 

How  are  numeral  adjectives  divided  ? 
7* 


78  GPvEENE's    INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  MI. 

COMPARISON     OF    ADJECTIVES. 

222.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison., 
the  positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  super- 
lative. 

223.  The  positive  denotes  a  quality  without 
comparison. 

Ex. — Righteous,  pleasant. 

224.  The  comparative  expresses  a  higher  or 
lower  degree  than  the  positive. 

Ex. — This  tree  is   taller  than   that.     Theodore  is  less 
industrious  than  his  brother. 

225.  The  superlative  expresses  the  highest 
or  lowest  degree  of  the  quality. 

Ex. — The  pine  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  grove.     This 
boy  is  the  least  studious  of  all  the  scholars. 

226.  The    comparative    of   monosyllables   is 
regularly  formed  by  adding  r  or  er,  and  the 

superlative  by  adding  st  or  est,  to  the  positive. 
Ex. —  Wise,  wiser,  wisest;  bold,  bolder,  boldest. 

227.  The  comparative  of  most  adjectives  of 
more  than  one   syllable  is  formed  by  prefixing 
more  or  less,  and  the  superlative  by  prefixing 
most  or  least,  to  the  positive. 

Ex. — Industrious,  more  industrious,   most  industrious; 
dutiful,  less  dutiful,  least  dutiful. 

HOTV  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there?     What  does  the  positive 
degree  denote  ?     The  comparative  ?     The  superlative  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-SECOND.  79 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly: — 

Positive,  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Good.  Better.  Best. 

Bad  or  ill.  Worse.  "Worst. 

Much  or  many.  More.  Most. 

Little.  Less  or  lesser.  Least. 

Far.  Farther.  Farthest. 

Near.  Nearer.  Nearest  or  next. 

Late.  Later.  Latest  or  last. 

Old.  Older  or  elder.  Oldest  or  eldest. 


228.  Exercise. 

1.  Give  the   degree   of  comparison   of  the   following 
adjectives : — 

Wild,  colder,  mildest,  innocent,  most  comfortable,  frail, 
least  active. 

2.  Compare, — 

Brave,  strong,  honorable,  useful,  thrifty,  considerable, 
serene. 


229.  MODEL  FOR  PARSING  AN  ADJECTIVE. 

"  The  faithful  man  will  be  rewarded." 

Faithful  is  (1)  an  adjective;  it  limits  or  qualifies  a  noun. 

(2)  qualifying ;  it  denotes  a  quality. 

($)  positive  degree;  it  expresses  quality  with- 
out comparison,  —  compared,  faithful, 
more  faithful,  most  faithful. 

(4)  it  belongs  to  "  man." 

(5)  Rule  V. — An   adjective  or  a  participle 

belongs  to  some  noun  or  pronoun. 

How  are  adjectives  regularly  compared?  How  are  adjectives  of  more 
than  one  syllable  usually  compared?  Compare  good,  bad,  ill,  much, 
many,  little,  fur,  near,  late,  old.  Parse  "faithful,"  as  in  the  model. 


80  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Parse  the  adjectives  in  the  following  examples; — 
There  is  no  prouder  grave. 
His  deeds  have  rendered  him  immortal. 
They  toiled  through  the  Syrian  desert. 
Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  kings. 

The  breaking  waves  dash'd  high 
On  a  stern  and  rock-bound  coast ; 

And  the  woods  against  a  stormy  sky 
Their  giant  branches  toss'd. 

LESSON  LIII. 

PRONOUNS. 

230.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the 
place  of  a  noun. 

Ex,. — The  farmer  ploughs  his  field ;  he  reaps  his  wheat, 
and  gathers  it  into  his  barn. 

231.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
personal,  relative,  and  interrogative. 

232.  A  personal  pronoun   is   used   both  to 
represent  a  noun,  and  to  show  whether  it  is  of 
the  first,  second,  or  third  person. 

233.  The  personal  pronouns  are? — 

I,  plural  we,  of  the  first  person. 

TIiou  or  you,  plural  ye  or  yon,  of  the  second  person. 
He,  plural  they,  of  the  third  person,  masculine. 
She,  plural  they,  of  the  third  person,  feminine. 
It,  plural  they,  of  the  third  person,  neuter. 

What  is  a  pronoun?  How  are  they  divided?  What  is  a  personal 
pronoun?  Name  the  personal  pronouns.  Name  the  compound  personal 
pronouns.  What  modifications  belong  to  personal  pronouns  ?  Decline  I, 

f/JOttj  /<<?,  she,  it. 


LESSON    FIFTY-THIRD.  81 

234.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are, — 

Myself,  ourselves  (first  person) ;   thyself,  yourself, 
yourselves  (second  person) ;  himself,  herself,  itself, 

themselves  (third  person).     -^ 

235.  To   pronouns    belong    Person,   Number, 
Gender,  and  Case. 

DECLENSION  OF  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

236.  The   personal    pronouns    are    thus   de- 
clined : — 

FIRST  PERSON. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  I.  We. 

Poss.  My  or  mine.  Our  or  ours. 

Obj.  Me.  Us. 

SECOND  PERSON. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  Thou.  Ye  or  you. 

Poss.  Thy  or  thine.  Your  or  yours. 

Obj.  Thee.  You. 

THIRD  PERSON.     Masculine. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  He.  They. 

Poss.  His.  Their  or  theirs. 

Obj.  Him.  Them. 

THIRD  PERSON.     Feminine. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  She.  They. 

Poss.  Her  or  hers.  Their  or  theirs. 

Obj.  Her.  Them. 


82  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

THIRD  PERSON.    Neuter. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  It.  They. 

Poss.  Its.  Their  or  theirs. 

Obj.  It.  Them. 

FIRST  PERSON. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Myself.  Ourselves. 

Poss.  .  . 

Obj.  Myself.  Ourselves. 

SECOND  PERSON. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Thyself.  Yourselves. 

Poss.  .  . 

Obj.  Thyself.  ;  Yourselves. 

THIRD  PERSON. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masculine.  Feminine.  Neuter. 

Nom.    Himself.          Herself.          Itself. 

Poss.     .  .          .       Themselves. 

Obj.      Himself.         Herself.          Itself.   ;. 

Of  the  possessives,  my,  thy,  her,  our,  your,  their,  are  used 
when  the  noun  is  expressed ;  mine,  thine,  hers,  ours,  yours, 
and  theirs,  when  it  is  understood ;  and  the  latter  must  be 
changed  to  the  former  whenever  the  noun  is  supplied. 
"  That  book  is  yours ;  this  is  mine."  "  That  book  is  your 
book  ;  this  is  my  book." 

When  mine,  thine,  &c.,  are  used  as  in  the  above  ex- 
ample, they  seem  to  perform  a  double  office:  first,  to 
represent  the  speaker,  hearer,  or  person  spoken  of,  as  a 
possessor ;  and,  secondly,  like  other  limiting  or  qualifying 
words,  when  the  noun  is  understood  to  represent  or  stand 

When  are  my,  thy,  <fcc.,  used?  When  mine,  thine,  &o.  ?  Explain  the 
use  of  mine,  thine,  &c. 


LESSON   FIFTY-THIRD.  83 

for  that  noun,  not  as  a  pronoun  does,  but  as  an  adjective^ 
Thus,  we  say,  "This  [book]  is  an  arithmetic;  that  [book] 
is  a  geography."  "  The  violent  [persons]  take  it  by  force." 
"Mine  [my  task]  was  an  easy  task."  Properly,  neither  of 
the  above  words  is  a  noun.  The  first  three  are  adjectives 
used  to  limit  the  noun  understood,  which  follows  them,  and 
the  last  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  used  to 
limit  the  noun  task,  understood.  If  it  is  ever  proper  to 
say  that  this,  that,  or  violent  are  used  as  nouns,  it  is  equally 
so  of  the  word  mine,  not  in  its  pronominal^  but  in  its  ad- 
jective office. 

287.   MODEL  FOR  PARSING  A  PERSONAL  PRONOUN. 

"The  boys  have  lost  their  boat." 
Their  is  (1)  &  pronoun;  it  stands  for  a  noun. 

(2)  personal;  it  is  used  to  represent  a  noun  and  tell 

its  person. 

(3)  it  represents  boys  for  its  antecedent. 

(4)  declined,  (sing.)   nom.,  he ;    poss.,  his ;    obj., 

him ;    (plural)   nom.,  they ;    poss.,  their  or 
theirs ;  obj.,  them. 

(5)  it  is  of  the  third  person,  plural  number,  mascu- 

line gender,  because  its  antecedent  is. 

(6)  Rule  III. — A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  an- 

tecedent in  person,  number,  and  gender. 

(7)  possessive  case,  and  limits  boat. 

(8)  Rule  VII. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  limit 

another  noun,  by  denoting  possession,  must 

be  in  the  possessive  case. 

Parse  the  pronouns  in  the  following  examples  : — 
The  king  found  himself  in  great  distress. 
Louisa  has  lost  her  gold  pencil. 


Parse  "  their/"  as  in  the  model. 


84  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Arnold  betrayed  his  country. 

I  wish  to  visit  them. 

We  are  going  into  the  country. 

Granville  will  bring  it  to  me. 

Hast  thou  a  star  to  guide  thy  path? 


LESSON  LIV. 

RELATIVE   AND   INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

238.  A  relative  pronoun  is  used  both  to  re- 
present, a  preceding  noun,  called  the  antecedent, 
and  to  connect  with  it  a  dependent  proposition. 

Ex. — Those  who  wish  for  favors,  must  assist  others. 

239.  The  relatives  are  wlto9  wliieli,  that, 
and  what. 

240.  Who  is  used  to  represent  persons;  which 
and  what,  to  represent  things;  and  that,  to  repre- 
sent both  persons  and  things. 

241.  What  is  both  an  adjective  and  a  relative. 

Ex. — "He  gave  me  what  books  I  needed;" — that  is, 
"  He  gave  me  those  books  which  I  needed." 

What  is  both  a  relative  pronoun  and  a  limiting  adjec- 
tive, and  is  equivalent  to  that  or  those  which.  When  the 
antecedent  is  expressed,  what  should  be  parsed  (1)  as  an 
adjective;  (2)  as  a  relative  pronoun;  as,  "He  gave  me 
what  books  I  wanted."  When  the  antecedent  is  omitted, 
the  indefinite  noun  "things"  may  be  supplied,  and  thus 

"What  is  a  relative  pronoun?  What  are  the  relatives ?  What  are  they 
severally  used  to  represent?  What  is  said  of  the  relative  "what"?  To 
what  is  it  equivalent  when  the  noun  is  understood  ?  How  should  it  bo 
parsed  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-FOURTH.  85 

the  case  is  always  as  above ;  or,  it  may  be  taken  (1)  as  an 
adjective  used  as  a  noun ;  it  is  then  itself  the  antecedent ; 
(2)  as  a  relative  relating  to  itself  as  antecedent ;  as,  "  He 
gave  me  what  I  wanted." 

242.  The    compound    relatives    are    whose, 
whoever,   whosoever,   whichever,  which- 
soever, whatever,  and  whatsoever. 

243.  The  interrogative  pronouns  are  used 
in   asking  questions.      They  are  who,  whieh, 
and  what. 

244.  The  noun  for  which  the  interrogative 
stands  is  found  in  the  answer. 
Ex.—"  Who  came  ?"     Ana.—  George. 

Which  and  what  commonly  refer  to  things,  while  who 
always  refers  to  persons.  The  former,  when  followed  by  a 
noun,  are  interrogative  adjectives;  as,  "What  lessons  have 
we  to-day  ?" 

DECLENSION   OF   RELATIVE    AND    INTERROGATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 

(Singular  and  Plural.  Singular  and  Plural. 

Norn.  Who.  Which. 

POM.  Whose.  Whose. 

Obj.  Whom.  Which. 

What  and  that  are  not  declined ;  whoever  and  whichever, 
whosoever  and  whichsoever,  are  declined  like  the  simple 
pronouns  who  and  which. 

Name  the  compound  relatives.  What  are  interrogative  pronouns? 
Name  them.  Where  is  the  noun  for  which  the  interrogative  stands? 
When  are  which  and  what  interrogative  adjectives?  Decline  the  pro- 
nouns who  and  which.  What  is  said  of  the  other  relatives? 


86  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

245.   MODELS  FOR  PAUSING. 

"  The  man  who  is  attached  to  religion,  may  be  relied  on." 
Who  is  (1)  &  pronoun;  it  takes  the  place  of  the  noun  man. 

(2)  relative;  it  represents  the  noun  man  as  its  an- 

tecedent, and  connects  with  it  the  proposition 
"  who  is  attached  to  religion." 

(3)  declined — nom.,  who  ;  poss.,  whose;  obj.,  whom. 

(4)  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender. 

Kule  III. 

(5)  nominative  case,  and  is  the  subject  of  the  propo- 

sition "  who  is  attached,"  &c.     Kule  I. 

"  I  gave  him  what  he  wanted." 
What  is  (1)  a  relative  pronoun,  used  also  as  an  adjective. 

(2)  as  an  adjective,  it  belongs  to  "  things "  under- 

stood, or  may  be  used  as  the  noun  "things," 
and  is  equivalent  to  those.     Rule  V. 

(3)  as  a  relative,  it  relates  to  "things,"  or  to  itself, 

used  as  the  noun  "  things,"  and  is  equivalent 
to  which. 

(4)  as  antecedent,  it  is  of  the  third  person,  plural 

number,  neuter  gender,  objective  case,  and 
is  the  object  of  gave.     Rule  VIII. 

(5)  as  relative,  it  is  of  the  third  person,  plural 

number,  neuter  gender  (Rule  III.),  and  is 
governed  by  wanted.     Rule  VIII. 

These  models,  with  a  slight  change,  answer  for  the  interrogative  pro- 
nouns. 

246.  Exercise. 

1.  Parse  the  pronouns  in  the  following  examples : — 
My  father,  whom  I  loved,  is  dead. 

Parse  "  who,"  as  in  the  model.     Parse  "what." 


LESSON    FIFTY-FOURTH.  87 

He  best  can  bear  reproof  who  merits  praise. 

Look  at  that  beautiful  butterfly  which  is  sporting  so 
gayly  in  the  sunshine. 

The  vessel  in  which  I  embarked  was  wrecked. 

I  could  not  discover  what  he  came  for. 

What  have  you  done  to  him  ? 

Who  have  visited  the  panorama  ? 

The  man  that  attacked  you  is  arrested. 

2.  Write  out  and  correct  the  faulty  examples  which 
you  have  heard  this  week. 

That  is  a  relative  when  who,  which,  or  whom  can  be 
used  in  its  place.  It  is  an  adjective  when  a  noun  can  be 
placed  after  it ;  as,  "  That  (glove)  is  mine."  In  all  other 
cases  it  is  a  conjunction. 

1.  Tell  what  part  of  speech  "  that"  is  in  the  following 
examples : — 

Give  me  that  knife. 

Do  you  like  the  horse  that  you  bought  ? 
The  lawyer  that  I  consulted  has  left  the  city. 
That  is  my  eldest  sister. 
How  large  that  melon  is ! 
I  think  that  Cornelia  will  go. 
The  strange  man  that  Richard  met,  was  a  gipsy. 
Eveline  has  gone  to  hear  that  celebrated  singer. 
Horace  hopes  that  he  shall  enter  college  next  year. 
That  picture  that  you  admired,  is  sold. 
I  think  that   that  machine   that  you  examined,  will 
succeed. 

2.  Write  two  sentences  containing  "that"  as  a  relative; 
two,  as  an  adjective;  and  two,  as  a  conjunction. 

3.  Collect  all  your  own  faulty  expressions  for  the  last 
week,  and  repeat  the  corrections  aloud. 

What  remark  upon  the  word  "  that "  ? 


88  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  LV. 

VERBS. CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 

247.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being, 
action,  or  state. 

Ex. — Be,  ready  sleep,  is  loved. 

The  being,  action,  or  state  may  be  affirmed,  assumed,  or 
used  abstractly;  as,  "George  runs;  George  running;  to 
run" 

When  a  verb  affirms  something  of  a  person  or  thing,  it 
is  called  finite,  being  limited  by  the  person  and  number 
of  its  subject.  When  it  has  no  subject,  it  does  not  affirm, 
and  is  not  limited,  and  is,  hence,  called  the  infinitive ;  as, 
"  to  run." 

248.  Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  iise, 
into  transitive  and  intransitive. 

249.  A  transitive  verb  requires  the  addition 
of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning. 

Ex. — James  struck  John. 

250.  An  intransitive  verb  does  not  require 
the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning. 

Ex. — The  horse  runs. 

251.  Verbs    are    divided,    according   to    their 
form,  into  regular  and  irregular. 

252.  A  regular  verb  is  one  which  forms  its 

What  is  a  verb?  How  may  the  being,  action,  or  slate  be  used?  What 
Is  a  finite  verb?  What  is  an  infinitive?  How  are  verbs  divided  according 
to  their  us.e  ?  According  to  their  form  ?  What  is  a  transitive  verb?  An 
intransitive  ?  What  is  a  regular  verb  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-FIFTH.  89 

past  tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  "ed"* 
to  the  present  tense. 

Ex. — Repair,  repaired;  love,  loved. 

253.  An  irregular  verb  is  one  which  does 
not  form  the  past  tense  and  past  participle  by 
the  addition  of  ed  to  the  present  tense. 

Ex. — See,  saw,  seen;  write,  wrote,  written. 

254.  A  defective  verb  is  one  in  which  some 
of  the  principal  parts  are  wanting. 

Ex. — May,  might  (participles  wanting). 

255.  An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  which  is  em- 
ployed in  the  conjugation  of  other  verbs. 

Ex. — Have,  in  "  have  loved." 

256.  An  impersonal  verb  is  one  by  which 
an  action  or  state  is  asserted  independently  of  any 
particular  subject. 

Ex. — It  rains;  it  snows. 

257.  A  redundant  verb  has  more  than  one 
form  for  its  past  tense  and  past  participle. 

Ex. — Thrive,  thrived  or  throve,  thrived  or  thriven. 


What  is  an  irregular  verb  ?  A  defective  verb  ?  An  auxiliary  ?  An 
impersonal  verb  ?  A  redundant  verb  ? 

*  In  every  regular  verb  the  past  tense  and  past  participle  are  invari- 
ably formed  by  adding  ed  to  the  present  tense.  But  in  such  verbs  as 
love,  move,  live,  <fec.,  the  final  e  is  dropped  before  the  addition  is 
made. 


90  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


258.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples,  and 
tell  whether  they  are  transitive  or  intransitive,  regular  or 
irregular : — 

The  twilight  deepens. 

I  have  dug  the  garden. 

Gertrude  is  travelling  in  Europe. 

Have  you  read  Everett's  oration? 

The  sexton  rings  the  bell. 

The  lady  invited  her  friends  to  visit  her. 

The  little  boy  is  very  fond  of  his  rocking-horse. 

They  act  charades. 

Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost. 

2.  Write  five  sentences  containing  regular  and  five  con- 
taining irregular  verbs. 

3.  Write  five  sentences  containing  transitive  and  five 
containing  intransitive  verbs. 


LESSON  LVL 

259.  To  verbs  belong  voice*  mode,  tense, 
number 9  and  person. 

VOICE. 

260.  Voice  is  that  form  of  the  transitive  verb 
which    shows   whether   the    subject   acts,   or  is 
acted  upon. 

261.  There  are  two  voices,  the  active  and 
the  passive. 

What  modifications  belong  to  verbs?     What  is  voioe?     How  many 
voices  are  there  ? 


LESSON   FIFTY-SIXTH.  91 

262.  The  active  voice  represents  the  subject 
as  acting. 

Ex. — John  struck  William. 

Here  John  is  the  subject,  and  is  the  one  who  acts. 

263.  The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject 
as  acted  upon. 

Ex. — William  ivas  struck  by  John. 
Here  William  is  the  subject,  but  he  does  not  act;  he 
only  receives  the  action  put  forth  by  John. 

264.  The  passive  form  of  the  verb  consists  of 
the  verb  to  be,  in  its  various  modes  and  tenses, 
joined  to  the  passive  participle  of  the  verb. 

Ex. — It  is  moved ;  It  was  moved ;  It  will  be  moved. 

The  passive  voice  is  used  when  the  actor  is  unknown,  or  when  we  wish 
to  conceal  his  name. 

Intransitive  verbs  have  no  passive  voice.  Such  verbs 
as  "  I  am  come;"  "  Babylon  is  fallen"  are  not  passive,  but 
intransitive  with  a  passive  form. 

Some  verbs,  usually  intransitive,  become  transitive 
when  used  with  a  causative  signification,  or  with  a  noun 
of  kindred  meaning ;  as,  "  They  ran  a  train  (caused  it  to 
run)  at  the  rate  of  forty  miles  an  hour;"  "He  ran  a  race;" 
"  He  sleeps  the  sleep  of  death."  These  verbs  may  have  a 
passive  form ;  as,  "  The  train  was  run,"  &c. 

265.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples;  tell 
which  are  transitive  and  which  are  intransitive;  which 

i 

What  is  the  active  voice  ?  The  passive  ?  Of  what  does  the  passive 
form  of  the  verb  consist?  What  is  said  of  intransitive  verbs?  When  are 
intransitive  verbs  used  transitively  ? 


92 

are  regular  and  which  are  irregular;  which  are  of  the 
active  and  which  of  the  passive  voice : — 

Abraham  sat  in  the  door  of  his  tent.  He  lived  to  a 
good  old  age. 

May  I  live  the  life  of  the  righteous. 

Chaucer  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Spenser  was  born  in  1553. 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained. 

Ay,  call  it  holy  ground, 

The  soil  where  first  they  trod : 
They  have  left  unstained  what  there  they  found, 

Freedom  to  worship  God. 

The  stars  were  hidden  by  a  thick  cloud. 
Another  race  has  filled  these  populous  borders. 
The  melancholy  days  are  come. 
The  brightness  of  their  smile  was  gone. 
Group  after  group  are  gathering. 

To  prayer !  to  prayer !  for  the  sun  hath  gone, 
And  the  gathering  darkness  of  night  comes  on. 


LESSON  LVIL 

MODE. 

266.  Mode  is  the  manner  in  which  the  being, 
action,  or  state  is  asserted. 

267.  There    are    commonly    reckoned    five 
modes, — the    indicative,   the    potential,   the 
subjunctive,   the    imperative,   and  the  in- 
finitive. 

What  is  mode?     How  many  modes  are  there? 


LESSON    FIFTY-SEVENTH.  93 

The  infinitive  is  not  properly  a  mode  of  the  verb,  as  it  does  not  assert 
action  at  all.     It  may  be  called  simply  the  infinitive. 

268.  The  indicative  mode  asserts  a  thing  as 
actually  existing. 

Ex. — James  loves ;  William  was  struck. 

269.  The  potential  mode  asserts  the  power, 
liberty,  permission,  necessity,  or  duty  of  acting,  or 
being  in  a  certain  state. 

Ex. — We  can  sing;   We  may  write;    He  must  read; 
They  should  obey  the  law. 

270.  The  snbjnnctive  mode  asserts  a  thing 
as  conditional  or  doubtful. 

Ex. — If  he  leave  me ;  Though  he  slay  me. 

271.  The  imperative  mode  asserts  a  com- 
mand, an  entreaty,  or  a  permission. 

Ex. —  Write;   Go  thou;  Be  admonished. 

272.  The  infinitive  represents  the  action  or 
state  as  an  abstract  noun. 

Ex. — To  write;   To  be  seen. 

273.  Exercise. 

1.  Give  the  modes  of  the  following  verbs. 

The  gentle  needs  the  strong  to  sustain  it. 

Lead  on !  my  orphan  boy !    It  may  bring  to  thee  a  joy. 

God  hath  spoken, 

And  the  strong  arm  I  leaned  upon  is  broken. 

Define  the  indicative  mode.     The  potential.     The  subjunctive.     The 
imperative.     The  infinitive. 


94  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Thou  wilt  dream  that  the  world  is  fair. 

Canst  thou  bind  the  sweet  influences  of  Pleiades  ? 

Rend  your  hearts,  and  not  your  garments. 

Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 

2.  Write  examples  illustrating  the  different  modes. 

LESSON  LVIIL 

PARTICIPLES. 

274.  A  participle  is  a  word  having  the  sig- 
nification of  the  verb,  but  the  construction  of  the 
adjective. 

Ex. — We  found  him  lying  on  the  ground.  Having 
written  his  letter,  he  sent  it  to  his  friend. 

The  participle  is  so  called  from  its  participating  in  the 
properties  of  the  verb  and  adjective. 

Sometimes  the  participle,  with  the  signification  of  the 
verb,  has  the  construction  of  the  noun ;  as,  "  He  was  en- 
gaged in  reading  Shakspeare." 

275.  There  are  properly  two  participles,  the 
present  and  the  perfect;  as,  reading,  having  read  ; 
(being)  loved,  having  been  loved. 

276.  There  are,  however,  three  forms  com- 
monly called  participles,  the  present,  the  past, 
and  the  perfect. 

EXAMPLES. 

Present.  Past.  Perfect. 

Active  Voice.     Loving.  Loved.         Having  loved. 

Passive  Voice.    Being  loved.         Loved.         Having  been  loved. 

What  is  a  participle  ?  Why  so  called  ?  What  construction  has  the* 
participle  sometimes?  How  many  participles  are  there?  What  three 
forms  are  commonly  used  ? 


LESSON   FIFTY-EIGHTH.  95 

The  form  called  the  past  participle  was  probably  a  passive  participle, 
having  always  a  passive  meaning;  as,  "He  has  treasures  concealed/' 
"He  has  concealed  treasures."  This  last  form  of  expression  has  come 
eventually  to  assume  an  active  meaning,-  as,  "He  has  concealed  his  trea- 
sures." In  this  change  of  meaning,  it  has  properly  lost  its  character  as 
a  participle.  It  never  partakes  of  the  properties  of  an  adjective,  but  is 
purely  verbal,  being  associated  with  have  in  the  predicate,  and  belongs 
equally  to  transitive  or  intransitive  verbs.  Yet,  alone,  it  is  not  a  verb, 
since  it  has  no  power  to  predicate.  We  cannot  say,  "  He  written  j" 
"  They  eaten."  It  is  used  with  have,  to  denote  a  completed  act. 

277.  The  present  active  participle  denotes 
an  action  or  state  present  and  in  progress  at  the 
time  represented  by  the  principal  verb. 

Ex. — We  find,  found,  or  shall  find  him  sitting  in  a 
chair. 

This  participle  always  ends  in  iny,  and  has  an  active  signification,  and 
may  be  either  transitive  or  intransitive.  Like  the  other  participles,  it 
dates  from  the  time  of  the  principal  verb,  and  not  from  the  time  of 
speaking. 

278.  The  present  passive  participle  denotes 
the  reception  of  an  act  at  the  time  represented 
by  the  principal  verb. 

Ex. — He  lives,  lived,  will  live,  loved  by  all. 

279.  The  perfect  active  participle  denotes 
an  action  or  state  completed  at  the  time  repre- 
sented by  the  principal  verb. 

Ex. — Having  finished  his  speech,  he  sat  down. 

The  actual  time  of  the  completion  may  be  prior  to  the  time  denoted 
by  the  principal  verb. 

What  is  said  of  the  past  participle?  What  does  the  present  active 
participle  denote?  What  remark  upon  the  present  active  participle? 
What  does  it  denote?  What  does  the  present  passive  participle  denote? 
What  does  the  perfect  active  participle  denote  ?  What  remark  ? 


96  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

280.  The  perfect  passive  participle  denotes 
the  reception  of  an  act  past  and  completed  at  the 
time  represented  by  the  principal  verb. 

Ex.—  Having  been  driven  from  home,  lie   enlisted  in 
the  army. 

281.  The  action  or  state  expressed  by  the  par- 
ticiple may  be  either  predicated  or  assumed. 

Ex. — The  horse   is  running  through  the  street;   The 
horse  running  through  the  street. 


282.  Exercise. 

1.  Give  the  active  participles  of — 

Sit,  lay,  do  arrive,  delay. 

2.  Give  the  participles  of—- 

Throw, write,  destroy,  obtain. 

3.  Classify  the  participles  in  the  following  examples : — 
Having  crossed  the  river,  I  ascended  the  mountain. 
Philip,  running  very  fast,  soon  overtook  his  father. 
Virginia  died,  lamented  by  all. 

I  saw  Emily  sitting  by  the  window. 

Having  come  to  the  shore,  we  moored  our  boat. 

Honor  lost,  all  is  lost. 

Having  once  been  deceived,  I  could  trust  him  no  longer. 

See  the  meadow,  covered  with  flowers. 


283.   MODEL  FOE  PARSING  A  PARTICIPLE. 

Having  written  my  letter,  I  directed  it  carefully. 

What  does  the  perfect  passive  participle  show  ?     How  may  the  parti- 
ciple be  used?     Parse  "having  written/'  as  in  the  model. 


LESSON   FIFTY-EIGHTH.  97 

Having  written  is  (1)  a  participle.     Why?     From  write 
(write,  wrote,  written). 

(2)  perfect  active.      Why  ?     (Writing, 

written,  having  written.) 

(3)  belongs  to  "  I."     Rule—An  adjec- 

tive or  a  participle  must  belong 
to  some  noun  or  pronoun. 

He  is  occupied  in  teaching  German. 
Teaching  is  a  participial  noun.  As  a  transitive  participle, 
it  is  limited  by  German  as  its  object.  As  a  noun,  it  is  third 
person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  objective  case,  and 
completes  the  relation  of  the  preposition  in.  Rule. — A 
noun  or  pronoun  used  to  complete  the  relation  of  a  prepo- 
sition is  in  the  objective  case. 

Parse  the  following  participles : — 
Edith  went  on  her  way,  singing  merrily. 
In  keeping  his  commandments  there  is  great  reward. 
Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again. 
Being  defeated  many  times,  they  finally  retired. 
Having  taken  the  city,  the  general  gave  it  up  to  pillage. 
The  grass  having  been  mown,  the  hay-makers  returned 
home. 

Lawrence  fell  from  the  tree,  in  attempting  to  reach  the 
nest. 

Uttered  not,  yet  comprehended, 

Is  the  spirit's  voiceless  prayer ; 

Soft  rebukes,  with  blessings  ended, 

Breathing  from  her  lips  of  air. 

I  see  them,  escaped  from  these  perils,  pursuing  their  all 
but  desperate  undertaking,  and  landed  at  last  on  the  ice- 
clad  rocks  of  Plymouth. 

Parse  "  teaching." 
7 


98  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  LIX. 

TENSE. 

284.  Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  01 
an  event,  with  reference  to  the  time  of  speaking. 

285.  An  action  is  progressive  when  it  is 
represented  as  unfinished;  perfect  when  it  is 
represented  as  completed;  and  indefinite  when 
both  of  these  states  are  merely  supposed,  but  not 
indicated. 

Ex. — I  am  writing;  I  have  written;  I  write. 

286.  There  are  three  divisions  of  time,  the 
past,  the  present,  and  the  future. 

287.  Each  division  has  two  tenses,  an  absolute 
and  a  relative.     There  are,  therefore,  six  tenses, 
three  absolute  and  three  relative. 

EXAMPLES. 

Absolute.    I  write.  I  wrote.  I  shall  write. 

Relative.     I  have  written.    I  had  written.     I  shall  have  written. 

288.  The  tenses  are  the  present,  the  present 
perfect,  the  past,  the  past  perfect,  the  future,  the 
future  perfect. 

289.  The  present  tense  represents  what  takes 
place  in  present  time. 

Ex. — I  see,  I  am  seeing,  I  do  see,  I  am  seen. 

What  does  tense  denote  ?  Why  do  we  have  different  forms  of  the  verb 
to  denote  the  same  time?  How  many  divisions  of  time  are  there?  How 
many  tenses  in  each  division  ?  Give  the  examples.  Name  the  six  tenses. 
What  does  the  present  tense  represent  ? 


LESSON   FIFTY-NINTH.  99 

Present  time  may  mean  the  moment  of  speaking,  or  it  may  mean  a 
period  of  time  including  the  moment  of  speaking ;  as,  to-day,  this  week, 
this  year.  The  present  tense  may  be  used  to  denote  an  act,  complete  at 
the  moment  of  speaking ;  as,  "  I  see  it ;"  or  incomplete ;  as,  "  The  boy  is 
studying ;" — as  a  custom  or  habit;  as,  "He  studies  music;" — as  a  universal 
truth;  as,  "God  is  just."  It  is  also  used  for  other  tenses;  as,  "Matthew 
traces  the  descent  of  Joseph ;  Luke  traces  that  of  Mary." 

290.  The  present  perfect  tense  represents  a 
past  event  completed  in  present  time. 

Ex. — I  have  seen,  I  have  been  seeing,  I  have  been  seen. 

Present  time  in  the  perfect  tense  always  embraces  a  period  including 
the  time  of  speaking  and  the  time  in  which  the  act  or  event  is  completed. 
The  completion  of  the  act  takes  place  prior  to  the  time  of  speaking,  but 
always  within  the  time  assumed  as  present ;  otherwise  the  past  should  be 
used. 

291.  The  past  tense   represents  what   took 
place  in  time  wholly  past. 

Ex. — I  saw,  I  was  seeing,  I  did  see,  I  was  seen. 

292.  The  past  perfect  tense  represents  a  past 
event  as  completed  in  time  wholly  past. 

Ex. — I  had  seen,  I  had  been  seeing,  I  had  been  seen. 

293.  The  future  tense  represents  what  will 
take  place  in  future  time. 

Ex. — I  shall  see,  I  shall  be  seeing,  I  shall  be  seen. 

294.  The  future  perfect  tense  represents  an 
event  as  completed  in  future  time. 

Ex. — I  shall  have  seen,  I  shall  have  been  seeing,  I  shall 
have  been  seen. 

What  do  we  mean  by  present  time  ?  What  does  the  present  perfect 
tense  den'ote?  What  does  present  time  in  the  perfect  tense  embrace? 
What  does  the  past  tense  represent?  The  past  perfect?  The  future? 
The  future  perfect  ? 


100  GKEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

295.  The  indicative  and  subjunctive  modes 
have  six  tenses  each;  the  potential,  four;  the 
infinitive,  two ;  and  the  imperative,  one. 

FORMS  OF  THE  VERB. 

296.  Transitive  verbs  have  four  forms,  the 

• 

common,  the  emphatic,  the  progressive,  and  the 
passive. 

Ex. — I  love,  I  do  love,  I  am  loving,  I  am  loved. 

297.  Intransitive   verbs    may   have    three 
forms,  the  common,  the  emphatic,  and  the  pro- 
gressive. 

Ex. — I  sit,  I  do  sit,  I  am  sitting. 

298.  The  common  form  represents  an  act 
indefinitely,  as  a  custofti,  or  as  completed  with- 
out reference  to  its  progress. 

Ex. — I  love,  I  loved,  I  shall  love,  I  have  loved. 

299.  The  emphatic  form  represents  an  act 
with  emphasis,  or  is  used  in  asking  questions. 

Ex. — I  do  write,  I  did  write,  Does  he  write  f 

300.  The  progressive  form  represents  an  act 
in  its  progress,  either  as  yet  unfinished,  as,  "  I 
am  writing,"  or  as  completed ;  as,  "  I  have  been 
writing" 

How  many  tenses  has  each  mode  ?  How  many  forms  have  'transitive 
verbs  ?  How  many  have  intransitive  ?  What  is  the  common  form  ?  The 
emphatic  ?  The  progressive  ? 


LESSON   FIFTY-NINTH.  101 

301.  The  passive  form  represents  the  recep- 
tion of  an  act. 

Ex. — I  am  loved,  I  was  loved,  I  shall  be  loved. 

302.  The  number  and  person  of  the  verb 
are  properties  which  show  its  agreement  with  the 
subject.     Like  the  subject,  the  verb  may  have 
two  numbers  and  three  persons. 

The  form  of  the  verb  "to  be"  changes  to  show  the  number  and  per- 
son. In  the  solemn  scriptural  or  poetic  style,  the  second  person  singular, 
indicative  present,  ends  in  est ;  as,  " Lovest  thou  me?"  The  third  person 
singular,  commonly  formed  by  adding  *  or  es  to  the  simple  verb,  assumes 
eth  in  the  solemn  style ;  as,  "  He  goeth." 

303.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  the  tenses  of  the  following  verbs  : — 
Did  you  hear  the  lecture  ? 

Archibald  listened  attentively. 

It  will  not  rain. 

Augusta  had  intended  to  go. 

I  have  heard  the  Irish  orator. 

My  father  saw  the  constellation  of  the  Southern  Cross. 

Is  Theodore  confident  of  success  ? 

I  shall  have  finished  my  work  when  Maria  arrives. 

Had  your  cousin  read  the  book  ? 

The  hills  were  covered  with  snow. 

2.  Tell  the  tenses  and  forms  of  the  following  verbs : — 
The  paper  is  published  in  Boston. 

Sorrow  is  the  common  lot  of  man. 
I  do  not  mind  the  storm. 

What  is  the  passive  form  ?  What  is  said  of  the  number  and  person 
of  the  verb  ?  How  is  the  second  person  singular  formed  ?  How  is  the 
third  person  ? 


102  GREENE'S   INTHODUCTION. 

•  Carltoti.  has  gained  the  prize. 
Guy  has  been  learning  to  skate. 
Charlemagne  was  beloved  by  his  people. 
Shepherd,  lead  on ! 
Thus  far  shalt  thou  go. 
If  thy  brother  die,  he  shall  rise  again. 
Thou  must  go  to  rest. 

He  sunk  to  repose  where  the  red  heaths  are  blended. 
Pale  mourned  the  lily,  where  the  rose  had  died. 
His  own  mother  would  hardly  have  known  him. 
Ida  was  walking  on  the  beach. 
The  sun  will  have  set  when  I  reach  home. 


LESSON  LX. 

CONJUGATION. 

304.  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regu- 
lar arrangement  of  its  several  modes,  tenses,  voices, 
numbers,  and  persons. 

305.  The  conjugation  of  the  verb  is  effected 
by  a   change  of  its   form,   or  by  the  use  of 
auxiliaries. 

The  only  tenses  which  change  their  form  are  the  present  and  the  past; 
as,  sit,  sittest,  sits,  sat,  s&ttest. 

306.  Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  which  are 
used  in  conjugating  other  verbs.     They  are — 

Present. — Do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must. 
Past. — Did,  was,  had,  should,  would,  might,  could. 

What  is  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ?  How  is  the  conjugation  of  a  verb 
effected  ?  What  are  the  only  tenses  that  change  their  form  ?  What  are 
auxiliary  verbs?  Name  the  auxiliaries  in  the  present  tense.  In  the  past. 


LESSON   SIXTIETH.  108 

307.  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the 
present  indicative,  the  past  indicative,  and  the 
past  participle. 

EXAMPLES. 

Present.  Past.  Past  Participle. 

Explain.  Explained.  Explained. 

Keply.  Keplied.  Replied. 

Write.  Wrote.  Written. 

Shine.  Shone.  Shone. 

Hurt.  Hurt  Hurt. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  "TO  BE." 

308.  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  effected  either 
by  changing  its  form  or  by  prefixing  one  or  -more 
auxiliaries  to  some  one  of  its  forms. 

Let  the  pupil  observe  the  forms  of  the  tenses,  as  he  learns  the  conju- 
gation of  the  different  modes  and  tenses. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am,  We  are, 

2.  Thou  art,  You  are, 

3.  He  is.  They  are. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been,  We  have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been,  You  have  been, 

3.  He  has  been.  They  have  been. 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  ?  Give  the  principal  parts  of 
"explain/*  "reply,"  "write,"  "shine,"  "hurt."  Conjugate  the  verb  "to 
be." 


104  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was.  We  were, 

2.  Thou  wast,  You  were, 

3.  He  was.  They  were. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been,  We  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  You  had  been, 

3.  He  had  been.  They  had  been. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be,  We  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  You  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been,  We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,    You  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been.        They  shall  or  will  have  been. 


POTENTIAL    MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be,*  We  may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be,  You  may  be, 

3.  He  may  be.  They  may  be. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  We  may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  You  may  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been.  They  may  have  been. 

*  Conjugate  with  each  auxiliary,  or  with  all  united,  thus :  I  may,  can, 
or  must  be. 


LESSON   SIXTIETH.  105 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be,  We  might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be,  You  might  be, 

3.  He  might  be.  They  might  be. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  been,  We  might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,        You  might  have  been, 

3.  He  might  have  been.  They  might  have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  am,  If  we  are, 

2.  If  thou  art,  If  you  are, 

3.  If  he  is.  If  they  are. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  have  been,  If  we  have  been. 

2.  If  thou  hast  been,  If  you  have  been, 

3.  If  he  has  been.  If  they  have  been. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  was,  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  wast,  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he  was.  If  they  were. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  had  been,  If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been,  If  you  had  been, 

3.  If  he  had  been.  If  they  had  been. 


106 


GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


FUTURE  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be,  If  we  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  If  you  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be.  If  they  shall  or  will  be. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been,      If  we  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,  If  you  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been.    If  they  shall  or  will  have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     (Subjunctive  form.) 

Besides  the  forms  already  given,  the  subjunctive  has  another  in  tho 
present  and  past,  peculiar  to  itself. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  be, 

2.  If  thou  be, 

3.  If  he  be. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  were, 

2.  If  thou  wert, 

3.  If  he  were. 


PAST  TENSE. 


Plural. 

If  we  be, 
If  you  be, 
If  they  be. 


Plural. 

If  we  were, 
If  you  were, 
If  they  were. 


*        Singular. 

Be,  or  Be  thou. 


IMPERATIVE    MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


Plural. 

Be  ye  or  you. 


INFINITIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE.    To  be. 
PRESENT  PERFECT.    To  have  been. 


LESSON  SIXTIETH.  107 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.    Being.  PAST.    Been. 

PERFECT.    Having  been. 

COMMON  STYLE. 

Conjugate  the  verb  BE  in  the  common  style,  thus : — 
INDICATIVE    MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.          .  Plural. 

1.  I  am,  We  are, 

2.  You  are,  You  are, 

3.  He  is.  They  are. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been,  We  have  been, 

2.  You  have  been,  You  have  been, 

3.  He  has  been.  They  have  been. 

In  the  same  manner  let  the  learner  go  through  all  the  tenses  and 
modes. 

309.  SYNOPSIS  is  a  short  view  of  the  verb, 
showing  its  forms  through  the  modes  and  tenses 
in  a  single  number  and  person. 

Ex. — In  the  first  person  singular,  we  have,  IND.  Pres., 
I  am ;  Pres.  Per.,  I  have  been ;  Past,  I  was ;  Past  Per.,  I 
had  been;  Fut.y  I  shall  be;  Fut.  Per.,  I  shall  have  been. 
POT.  Pres.,  I  may  be ;  Pres.  Per.,  I  may  have  been ;  Past, 
I  might  be;  Past  Per.,  I  might  have  been.  SUB.  Pres., 
If  I  am,  &c. 

310.  Exercise. 

In  what  mode  and  tense  are  the  following  verb? — 

I  am.     He  has  been.     If  I  were.     You  can  be.     He 


108  GKEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

might  be.  To  have  been.  They  were.  He  will  have 
been.  You  might  be.  She  had  been.  You  will  be.  To 
be.  I  must  have  been.  Thou  art.  If  he  be.  If  you  are. 
They  might  have  been.  We  were.  I  had  been.  Thou 
wast.  He  is. 

Give  a  synopsis  of  "  TO  BE,"  in  the  IND.  second  person 
singular,  sec.  plur.,  first  per.  plur.,  sec.  per.  plur.,  third 
per.  plur.  POT.  third  per.  sing,  second  per.  plur.,  third 
per.  plur.  SUB.  sec.  per.  sing.,  sec.  per.  .plur.,  third  per. 
plur.,  first  per.  plur. 


LESSON  LXI. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  REGULAR  VERB  "TO  LOYE." 

ACTIVE    VOICE. 
INDICATIVE    MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  love,  We  love, 

2.  Thou  lovest,  You  love, 

3.  He  loves.  They  love. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 


1. 

I  have  loved, 

We  have  loved, 

2. 

Thou  hast  loved, 

You  have  loved, 

3. 

He  has  loved. 

They  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  loved, 

We  loved, 

2. 

Thou  lovedst, 

You  loved, 

3. 

He  loved. 

They  loved. 

Give  the  synopsis.     Conjugate  tho  verb  "To  Love/''  active— passive. 


LESSON    SIXTY-FIEST.  109 

PAST  PEKFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  loved,  We  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,          You  had  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved.  They  had  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  love,  We  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  You  shall  or  will  love, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  love.  They  shall  or  will  love. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  loved,          We  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,    You  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  loved.        They  shall  or  will  have  loved. 


POTENTIAL    MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  love,  We  may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  You  may  love, 

3.  He  may  love.  They  may  love. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  loved,  We  may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  You  may  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved.  They  may  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  love,  We  might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  You  might  love, 

3.  He  might  love.  They  might  love. 


110  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  loved,  We  might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,       You  might  have  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  loved.  They  might  have  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     (Regular  form.) 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  love,  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  lovest,  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  loves.  If  they  love. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  have  loved,         If  we  have  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hast  loved,       If  you  have  loved, 

3.  If  he  has  loved.         If  they  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  loved,  If  we  loved, 

2.  If  thou  lovedst,  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  he  loved.  If  they  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  had  loved,  If  we  had  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  loved,  If  you  had  loved, 

3.  If  he  had  loved.  If  they  had  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  love,  If  we  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,       If  you  shall  or  will  love, 
8.  If  he  shall  or  will  love.  If  they  shall  or  will  love. 


LESSON    SIXTY-FIRST.  Ill 

FUTUEE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  loved,       If  we  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,  If  you  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved.     If  they  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     (Subjunctive  form.)     • 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural.    . 

1.  If  I  love,  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  love.  If  they  love. 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Love,  or  Love  thou.  Love,  or  Love  you. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT.    To  love.  PERFECT.    To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.    Loving.  PAST.    Loved. 

PERFECT.    Having  loved. 
A 

PASSIVE    VOICE. 
INDICATIVE    MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  loved,  We  are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved,  You  are  loved, 

3.  He  is  loved.  They  are  loved. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been  loved,  We  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,  You  have  been  loved, 
8.  He  has  been  loved.  They  have  been  loved. 


112  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was  loved,  We  were  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  You  were  loved, 

3.  He  was  loved.  They  were  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been  loved,  We  had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,  You  had  been  loved, 

3.  He  had  been  loved.  They  had  been  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be  loved,  We  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved,        You  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved.  They  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been  loved,    We  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been    You  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved,  loved, 

3.  He    shall   or   will  have  been    They  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved.  loved. 


POTENTIAL    MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be  loved,  We  may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  You  may  be  loved, 

3.  He  may  be  loved.  They  may  be  loved* 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved,  We  may  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved,      You  may  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved.  They  may  have  been  loved. 


LESSON    SIXTY-FIRST.  113 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be  loved,  We  might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,         You  might  be  loved, 

3.  He  might  be  loved.  They  might  be  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved,  We  might  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved,     You  might  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved.          They  might  have  been  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     (Regular form.}- 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  am  loved,  If  we  are  loved, 

2.  If  thou  art  loved,  If  you  are  loved, 

3.  If  he  is  loved.  If  they  are  loved. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  have  been  loved,     If  we  have  been  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hast  been  loved    If  you  have  been  loved, 

3.  If  he  has  been  loved.     If  they  have  been  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singu  la  r.  Plura  I. 

1.  If  I  was  loved,  If  we  were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wast  loved,  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  were  loved.  If  they  were  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  had  been  loved,      If  we  had  been  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been  loved,  If  you  had  been  loved, 

3.  If  he  had  been  loved,     If  they  had  been  loved. 


114  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

FUTUEE  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be  loved,  If  we  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved,       If  you  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be  loved.          If  they  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been    If  we  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved,  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been    If  you  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved,  loved, 

8.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been    If  they  shall  or  will  have  been 
loved.  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     (Subjunctive  form.) 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be  loved,         If  we  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved,       If  you  be  loved, 

3.  If  he  be  loved.        If  they  be  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were  loved,  If  we  were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  were  loved.  If  they  were  loved. 


IMPERATIVE    MODE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Be  loved,  or  Be  thou  loved.  Be  loved,  or  Be  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT.    To  be  loved.  PERFECT.    To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.    Being  loved.  PAST  (PASSIVE).    Loved. 

PERFECT.     Having  been  loved. 


LESSON  SIXTY-SECOND.  115 

311.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  the  mode,  tense,  voice,  number,  and  person  of  the 
following  verb : — 

She  has  loved.  I  might  love.  We  had  loved.  We 
had  been  loved.  He  may  have  loved.  If  I  be  loved.  I 
love.  He  will  love.  He  shall  have  loved.  I  have  loved. 
They  shall  have  loved.  She  is  loved.  We  may  be  loved. 
You  might  have  been  loved.  If  I  love.  If  they  love. 
They  may  love.  We  will  love.  I  had  loved.  Thou  hast 
loved.  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  Thou  art  loved.  He  was 
loved.  She  will  have  been  loved. 

2.  Write  or  repeat  a  full  conjugation  of  the  following 
verbs : — 

Relieve,  betray,  defy,  persuade,  resolve,  determine. 

3.  Conjugate  two  of  the  above  verbs  interrogatively, 
two  of  them  negatively,  and  two  of  them  interrogatively 
and  negatively.     Thus: — 

Do  I  love?  &c.    I  do  not  love,  &c.    Do  I  not  love?  &c. 

4.  Conjugate  one  of  them  in  the  Common  Style. 

LESSON  LXIL 

312.  1.  An  irregular  verb  is  one  which 
does  not  form  its  past  tense  and  past  participle 
by  adding  ed  to  the  present  tense. 

Ex. — See,  saw,  seen;  write,  wrote,  written. 

The  irregular  verbs  were  much  more  numerous  in  the  early  history 
of  the  language  than  at  present.  The  tendency  in  modern  English  is 
constantly  to  diminish  the  numher  of  irregular  formations :  hence  tho 
numerous  obsolete  forms.  Some  of  the  present  forms  are  derived  from 
other  verbs.  Went  comes  from  wend,  and  not  from  go.  Philologists  call 
the  irregular  the  strong,  and  the  regular  tho  weak  inflection. 

2.  The  following  list  contains  the  principal  parts  of  the 
irregular  verbs.  Those  verbs  which  are  marked  R.  have 


116 


GREENE  8   INTRODUCTION. 


also  the  regular  forms.  Those  which  are  italicized  are 
either  obsolete  or  are  becoming  so,  and  should  not  be  com- 
mitted to  memory.  When  the  R  is  dark-faced,  the  regular 
form  is  preferred,  and  should  be  repeated  first;  r.  in  italics 
means  regular,  but  seldom  used. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Abide, 

Abode, 

Abode. 

Arise, 

Arose, 

Arisen. 

Awake, 

Awoke,  r. 

Awaked. 

Be  or  am, 

Was, 

Been. 

Bear  (to  bring  forth], 

Bore,  bare, 

Born. 

Bear  (to  carry), 

Bore,  bare, 

Borne. 

Beat, 

Beat, 

Beaten,  beat. 

Begin, 

Began, 

Begun. 

Belay, 

Belaid,  R. 

Belaid,  R. 

Bend, 

Bent,  r. 

Bent,  r. 

Bet, 

Bet,  R. 

Bet,  R. 

Bereave, 

Bereft, 

Bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

Besought, 

Besought. 

Bid, 

Bid,  bade, 

Bidden,  bid. 

Bind,  Un~ 

Bound, 

Bound. 

Bite, 

Bit, 

Bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

Bled, 

Bled. 

Blend, 

Blent,  R. 

Blent,  R. 

Bless, 

Blest,  R. 

Blest,  R. 

Blow, 

Blew, 

Blown. 

Break, 

Broke,  brake, 

Broken,  broke. 

Breed, 

Bred, 

Bred. 

Bring, 

Brought, 

Brought. 

Build,  Re- 

Built,  r. 

Built,  r. 

Burn, 

Burnt,  R. 

Burnt,  R. 

Burst, 

Burst, 

Burst. 

Buy, 

Bought, 

Bought. 

Cast, 

Cast, 

Cast. 

Catch, 

Caught,  r. 

Caught,  r. 

Cliide, 

Chid, 

Chidden,  chid. 

Choose, 

Chose, 

Chosen. 

Cleave  (to  adhere), 

Cleaved,  clave, 

Cleaved. 

LESSON   SIXTY-SECOND. 


117 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Cleave  (to  split), 

Clove,  cleft,  clave, 

Cleft,  cloven,  r. 

Cling, 

Clung, 

Clung. 

Clothe, 

Clad,  R. 

Clad,  R. 

Come,  Be-, 

Came, 

Come. 

Cost, 

Cost, 

Cost. 

Creep, 

Crept, 

Crept. 

Crow, 

Crew,  R. 

Crowed. 

Cut, 

Cut, 

Cut. 

Dare  (to  venture), 

Durst,  B. 

Dared. 

Dare  (to  challenge],  R. 

Dared, 

Dared. 

Deal, 

Dealt,  r. 

Dealt,  r. 

Dig, 

Dug,r. 

Dug,  r. 

Do,  Mis-,  Un-,  Out-, 

Did, 

Done. 

Draw, 

Drew, 

Drawn. 

Dream, 

Dreamt,  R. 

Dreamt,  R. 

Dress, 

Drest,  B. 

Drest,  R. 

Drink, 

Drank, 

Drunk,  drank. 

Drive, 

Drove, 

Driven. 

Dwell, 

Dwelt,  r. 

Dwelt,  r. 

Eat, 

Ate,  eat, 

Eaten,  or  eat. 

Fall,  Be-, 

Fell, 

Fallen. 

Feed, 

Fed, 

Fed. 

Feel, 

Felt, 

Felt. 

Fight, 

Fought, 

Fought. 

Find, 

Found, 

Found. 

Flee, 

Fled, 

Fled. 

Fling, 

Flung, 

Flung. 

Fly, 

Flew, 

Flown. 

Forbear, 

Forbore, 

Forborne. 

Forget, 

Forgot, 

Forgotten,  forgot. 

Forsake, 

Forsook, 

Forsaken. 

Freeze, 

Froze, 

Frozen. 

Freight, 

Freighted, 

Fraught,  R. 

Get,  Be-,  For-, 

Got, 

Got,  gotten. 

Gild, 

Gilt,  R. 

Gilt,  R. 

Gird,  Be,-  En-, 

Girt,  R. 

Girt,  R. 

Give,  For-,  Mix-, 

Gave, 

Given. 

Go, 

Went, 

Gone. 

118 


GREENE  S    INTRODUCTION. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Grave,  En-, 

Graved, 

Graven,  R, 

Grind, 

Ground, 

Ground. 

Grow, 

Grew, 

Grown. 

Hang  (to  tale  life,  R.), 

Hung, 

Hung. 

Have, 

Had, 

Had. 

Hear, 

Heard, 

Heard. 

Heave, 

Hove,  R. 

Hoven,  R. 

Hew, 

Hewed, 

Hewn,  R. 

Hide, 

Hid, 

Hidden,  hid. 

Hit, 

Hit, 

Hit. 

Hold,  Be-,  With-, 

Held, 

Held,  holden. 

Hurt, 

Hurt, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Kept, 

Kept. 

Kneel, 

Knelt,  r. 

Knelt,  r. 

Knit, 

Knit,  r. 

Knit,  r. 

Know, 

Knew, 

Known. 

Lade,  to  load  (to  dip,  R.  ) 

,  Laded, 

Laden,  R. 

Lay, 

Laid, 

Laid. 

Lead,  Mis-, 

Led, 

Led. 

Leap, 

Leapt,  R. 

Leapt,  R. 

Learn, 

Learnt,  R. 

Learnt,  R. 

Leave, 

Left, 

Left. 

Lend, 

Lent, 

Lent. 

Let, 

Let, 

Let. 

Lie  (to  recline), 

Lay, 

Lain. 

Lie  (  to  speak  falsely),  R, 

,  Lied, 

Lied. 

Light, 

Lit,  R. 

Lit,  R. 

Lose, 

Lost, 

Lost. 

Make, 

Made, 

Made. 

Mean, 

Meant, 

Meant. 

Meet, 

Met, 

Met, 

Mow, 

Mowed, 

Mown,  R. 

Pass, 

Past,  R. 

Past,  R. 

Pay,  Re-, 

Paid, 

Paid. 

Pen  (to  enclose], 

Pent,  R. 

Pent,  R. 

Prove, 

Proved, 

Proven,  R. 

Put, 

Put, 

Put. 

Quit; 

Quit,  r. 

Quit,  r. 

LESSON   SIXTY-SECOND. 


119 


Present. 

Rap, 

Bead, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise,  A~9 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw, 

Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

Seethe, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set,  Be-, 

Shake, 

Shape,  Mis-, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Show, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Shut, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 


Past. 

Rapt,  R. 

Read, 

Rent, 

Rid, 

Rode,  rid, 

Rang,  rung, 

Rose, 

Rived, 

Ran,  run, 

Sawed, 

Said, 

Saw, 

Sought, 

Sod,  R, 

Sold, 

Sent, 

Set, 

Shook, 

Shaped, 

Shaved, 

Sheared,  (shore,  obs. 

Shed, 

Shone,  R. 

Shod, 

Shot, 

Showed, 

Shred, 

Shrunk,  shrank, 

Shut, 

Sang,  sung, 

Sunk,  sank, 

Sat, 

Slew, 

Slept, 

Slid, 

Slung,  slang, 

Slunk, 

Slit,  r. 


Past  Participle. 

Rapt,  R, 

Read. 

Rent. 

Rid. 

Ridden,  rid. 

Rung. 

Risen. 

Riven,  R. 

Run. 

Sawn,  R, 

Said. 

Seen. 

Sought. 

Sodden,  R. 

Sold. 

Sent. 

Set. 

Shaken. 

Shapen,  R. 

Shaven,  R. 

Shorn,  R. 

Shed. 

Shone,  R. 

Shod. 

Shot. 

Shown,  R. 

Shred,  [shrunken. 

Shrunk  or 

Shut. 

Sung. 

Sunk. 

Sat. 

Slain. 

Slept. 

Slidden,  slid. 

Slung. 

Slunk. 

Slit,  r. 


120 


GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Smell, 

Smelt,  it. 

Smelt,  R. 

Smite, 

Smote, 

Smitten,  smit. 

Sow  (to  scatter), 

Sowed, 

Sown,  R. 

Speak,  Be-, 

Spoke,  spake, 

Spoken. 

Speed, 

Sped,  r. 

Sped,  r. 

Spell, 

Spelt,  R. 

Spelt,  R. 

Spend,  Ms-, 

Spent, 

Spent. 

Spill, 

Spilt,  R. 

Spilt,  R, 

Spin, 

Spun,  span, 

Spun. 

Spit,  Be-, 

Spit,  spat, 

Spit. 

Split, 

Split,  r. 

Split,  r. 

Spoil, 

Spoilt,  R. 

Spoilt,  R, 

Spread,  Be-, 

Spread, 

Spread. 

Spring, 

Sprang,  sprung, 

Sprung. 

Stand,  With-,  &c., 

Stood, 

Stood. 

Stave, 

Stove,  R. 

Stove,  R. 

Stay, 

Staid,  R. 

Staid,  ;R.  * 

Steal, 

Stole, 

Stolen. 

Stick, 

Stuck, 

Stuck. 

Sting, 

Stung, 

Stung. 

Stride, 

Strode,  strid, 

Stridden,  strid. 

Strike, 

Struck, 

Struck,  stricken. 

String, 

Strung, 

Strung. 

Strive, 

Strove, 

Striven. 

Strow,  or  Strew,  Be-, 

Strowed  or  strewed, 

Strown,  strewn. 

Swear, 

Swore,  sware, 

Sworn. 

Sweat, 

Sweat,  R. 

Sweat,  R. 

Sweep, 

Swept, 

Swept. 

Swell, 

Swelled, 

Swollen,  R. 

Swim, 

Swam,  swum, 

Swum. 

Swing, 

Swung, 

Swung. 

Take,  Be-,  &c. 

Took, 

Taken. 

Teach,  Mis-,  Re-, 

Taught, 

Taught. 

Tear, 

Tore,  tare, 

Torn. 

Tell, 

Told, 

Told. 

Think,  Be-t 

Thought, 

Thought. 

Thrive, 

Throve,  R. 

Thriven,  R. 

Throw, 

Threw, 

Thrown, 

LESSON   SIXTY-SECOND. 


121 


Present. 
Thrust, 
Tread, 
Wake, 
Wax, 
Wear, 
Weave, 
Wed, 
Weep, 
Wet, 
Whet, 
Win, 
Wind, 
Work, 
Wring, 
Write, 


Past. 

Thrust, 

Trod, 

Woke,  R. 

Waxed, 

Wore, 

Wove, 


Wept, 
Wet,  R. 
Whet,  R. 
Won, 
Wound,  R. 
Wrought,  R. 
Wrung, 
Wrote, 


Past  Partible. 

Thrust. 
Trodden,  trod. 
Woke,  R. 
Waxen,  R. 
Worn. 
Woven. 
Wed,  R. 
Wept. 
Wet,  R. 
Whet,  R. 
Won. 
Wound. 
Wrought,  R. 
Wrung. 
Written. 


NOTE. — Many  of  the  words  in  the  list  are  irregular  to  the  eye,  not  to 
the  ear.  The  preference  is  one  of  orthography.  Thus,  rapt  and  rapped, 
are  pronounced  alike ;  so,  also,  drest,  dressed,  blest,  blessed,  and  others. 
Sometimes  the  difference  in  sound  is  that  of  t  and  its  correlative  d, — 
dwelt,  dwelled,  spelt,  spelled.  Besides  the  words  in  the  list,  there  are  a 
few  forms  which  are  seldom  found  except  in  the  poets  or  in  the  older 
usages  of  the  language.  The  following  very  rarely  have  a  regular  past 
and  past  participle: — Grind,  lay,  pay,  shake,  slide,  sweep,  string,  strivef 
wind,  wring. 

Betide  has  (obs.)  betid;  bide  has  (obs.)  bided;  creep  has  (obs.)  crope; 
curse  has  sometimes  curst;  dive  has  (obs.)  dove,  diven;  heat  has  (collo- 
quial) heat;  plead  has  (improperly)  plead;  reave  (itself  little  used)  has 
reft,  u.j  shear  has  (obs.)  shore;  show  has  (obs.)  shew,  shewn;  strow,  strew, 
or  (obs.)  straw,  has  ttrowed,  strewed,  (obs.)  strawed,  strawn,  strewn  ;  but  it 
may  now  be  regarded  as  a  regular  verb, — strew,  strewed,  strcioed. 

313.  MODEL  FOR  PARSING  A  VERB. 

Anna  had  gone  to  walk. 

Had  gone  (1)  is  a  verb ;  a  word  which  expresses  being,  ac- 
tion, or  state. 


Give  the  form  for  parsing  a  verb.     Parse  "Had  gone/' according  to 
the  model ;  also,  "  To  walk." 


122  GHEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

(2)  irregular;  it  does  not  form  its  past  tense  and 

past  participle  by  adding  ed. 

(3)  go,  went,  gone. 

(4)  intransitive;  it  does  not  require  an  object  to 

complete  its  meaning. 

(5)  common  form ;  it  represents  an  act  indefi- 

nitely, &c. 

(6)  indicative  mode;  it  asserts  a  thing  as  actual. 

(7)  past  perfect  tense ;  it  represents  a  past  event 

completed  in  past  time,  formed  by  prefix- 
ing had  to  the  past  participle  gone. 

(8)  I  had  gone,  thou  hadst  gone,  he  had  gone, 

we  had  gone,  you  had  gone,  they  had  gone. 

(9)  third  person ,  singular  number,  because  Anna  is. 
(10)  KULE  IV. — The  verb  must  agree  with  its 

subject  in  number  and  person. 

To  walk  is  a  regular,  intransitive  verb,  active  voice 
(walk,  walked,  walked),  in  the  infinitive,  present,  and  de- 
pends on  had  gone.  KULE  XVI. 

1.  Parse  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples : — 
Blessed  are  the  peace-makers. 
Homage  should  be  paid  to  the  Most  High. 
The  Magna  Charta  was  granted  to  the  English  by  King 
John. 

The  Mexicans  were  defeated  by  the  Americans  at  Bueua 
Vista. 

If  you  wish,  I  will  show  you  the  Royal  Oak  where  King 
Charles  hid  himself. 

Cromwell's  name  will  be  long  remembered. 
Should  you  like  to  take  a  ride  ? 
The  village  bells  are  ringing  merrily. 

Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 

We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 
And,  departing,  leave  behind  us 
Footprints  in  the  sands  of  Time, 


LESSON   SIXTY-THIRD.  123 

LESSON  LXIIL 

ADYERBS. 

314.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the 
i^eaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  a  participle,  or 
Bother  adverb. 

EXAMPLES. 

The  stage  started  early. 
He  has  undertaken  sfvery  difficult  task. 
The  sun,  shining  brightly,  awoke  me. 
How  wildly  the  old  man  talked ! 

Instead  of  a  single  word,  a  phrase  or  proposition  may  be  added  to  a 
verb,  adjective,  or  adverb,  to  express  an  adverbial  idea;  as,  "Speak  dis- 
tinctly— with  distinctness — so  that  you  may  be  understood/' 

315.  Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  four  general 
classes, — adverbs  of  place,  of  time,  of  cause, 
of  manner* 

Adverbs  of  place  answer  the  questions  Where/ 
Whither  f  Whence  f  as,  here,  there,  above,  below,  yonder, 
somewhere,  nowhere,  back,  upwards,  downwards,  &c.  &c. 

Adverbs  of  time  answer  the  questions  When?  How 
long  f  How  often  f  as,  then,  yesterday,  alivays,  ever,  con- 
tinually, often,  frequently,  &c. 

Adverbs  of  cause  answer  the  questions  Whyf  Where- 
fore f  as,  why,  wherefore,  therefore,  then,  jsu 

Adverbs  of  manner  answer  the  questions  Howf  as, 
elegantly,  faithfully,  fairly,  &c. 


What  is  an  adverb  ?  How  may  an  adverbial  idea  be  expressed  ?  How 
are  adverbs  divided  ?  What  questions  do  adverbs  of  place  answer?  Ad- 
verbs of  time?  Adverbs  of  cause?  Of  manner? 


124  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

With  these  last  may  be  classed  those  which  answer  the 
question  How?  in  respect  to  quantity  or  quality;  as,  How 
much  ?  How  good  ?  such  as,  too,  very,  greatly,  chiefly,  &c. 

Modal  adverbs  qualify  the  assertion,  and  not,  like 
other  adverbs,  that  which  is  asserted.  They  are  yea,  yes, 
verily,  truly,  surely,  undoubtedly,  doubtless,  forsooth,  cer- 
tainly, no,  nay,  not,  possibly,  probably,  perhaps,  peradven- 
ture,  perchance. 

Conjunctive  adverbs  are  those  which  give  to  a  de- 
pendent clause  an  adverbial  relation,  and  connect  it  with 
the  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb  which  it  modifies  ;  as,  "  I 
shall  meet  my  friend  when  the  boat  arrives." 

*  COMPARISON    OF   ADVERBS. 

316.  Many  adverbs,  like  adjectives,  admit  of 


Ex.  —  Soon,  sooner,  soonest;  bravely,  more  bravely,  most 
bravely. 

The  following  adverbs  are  compared  irregularly  :  — 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Ill  or  badly,  Worse,  Worst. 

Little,  Less,  Least. 

Far,  Farther,  Farthest. 

Much,  More,  Most. 

Well,  Better,  Best. 

317.  MODEL. 

The  stream  flows  most  rapidly  in  the  spring. 
Ra/pidly  (1)  is  an  adverb  of  manner.     Why? 

What  are  classed  with  adverbs  of  manner  ?  What  are  modal  adverbs  ? 
What  are  conjunctive  adverbs?  Are  adverbs  compared?  Compare  flf, 
tittle,  far,  much,  ictU.  Parse  "most  rapidly,"  according  to  the  model. 


LESSON   SIXTY-FOURTH.  125 

(2)  Compared  (rapidly,  more  rapidly,  most  ra- 

pidly) ;  superlative  degree. 

(3)  It  limits  flows.     KULE  IX. — "Adverbs  are 

used  to   limit  participles,  adjectives,  and 
other  adverbs." 

I  shall  go  before  you  arrive. 

Before  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  of  time,  and  connects 
the  clause  "before  you  arrive"  with  the  verb  shall  go. 
KULE  XV.  , 

Parse  the  following  adverbs : — 

The  Athenians  were  always  seeking  some  new  thing. 

Man  never  loses  the  sentiment  of  his  true  good. 

How  novel,  how  grand  the  spectacle ! 

There,  then,  she  had  found  a  grave. 

My  mother  died  when  I  was  very  young. 

Go,  where  glory  waits  thee. 

Kate  wept  bitterly. 

Where  shall  we  find  rest  ? 

Isabella  gladly  welcomed  the  early  violet. 

Henry  rises  very  early. 

The  prospect  is  extremely  beautiful. 

LESSON  LXIV. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

318.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show 
the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  some  other 
word. 

Ex. — He  sailed  upon  the  ocean  in  a  ship. 

The  preposition  always  shows  a  relation  between  two  terms,  an  ante- 
cedent and  a  subsequent.  The  subsequent  term  is  called  tho  object  of  the 

Parse  "before."  What  is  a  preposition  ?  What  is  the  object  of  a  pre- 
position? 


126 


GKEENE  S   INTRODUCTION. 


preposition.  The  preposition  and  objeo*  united  form  a  dependent  element 
of  the  sentence,  having  the  antecedent  term  as  its  principal.  When  the 
dependent  element  is  joined  to  a  noun,  it  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective ; 
as,  The  rays  of  the  sun — Solar  rays.  When  joined  to  a  verb,  adjective,  or 
adverb,  the  dependent  phrase  is  usually  of  the  nature  of  an  adverb;  as, 
The  case  was  conducted  icith  skitt — skilfully. 


319.  The 

following 

is  a  list  of  the  principal 

prepositions 

in  use  :  — 

aboard, 

before, 

for, 

through, 

about, 

behind, 

from,  , 

throughout, 

above, 

below, 

in,  into, 

till, 

according  to, 

beneath, 

'mid, 

to, 

across, 

beside,  or 

'midst, 

touching, 

after, 

besides, 

notwithstanding, 

toward,  or 

against, 

between, 

of, 

towards, 

along, 

betwixt, 

off, 

under, 

amid,  or 

beyond, 

on, 

underneath, 

amidst, 

by, 

out  of, 

until, 

among,  or 

concerning, 

over, 

unto, 

amongst, 

down, 

past, 

up, 

around, 

during, 

regarding, 

upon, 

at, 

ere, 

respecting, 

with, 

athwart, 

except, 

round, 

within, 

bating, 

excepting, 

since, 

without. 

320.  MODEL. 

He  has  gone  to  New  York. 
To  (1)  is  a  preposition ;  it  is  used  to  show  the  relation  of  a 

noun  or  pronoun  to  some  other  word. 
(2)  It  shows  the  relation  between  the  noun  New  York 
and  the  verb  lias  gone. 

What  do  the  preposition  and  its  object  form?  What  do  they  express 
when  joined  to  a  noun  ?  When  joined  to  a  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb  ? 
Give  the  list  of  prepositions. 


LESSON   SIXTY -FIFTH.  127 

(3)  RULE  XIII. — A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  re, 
lation  of  its  object  to  the  word  on  which  the  latter 
depends. 
I  arse  the  following  prepositions  : — 

Cornelia  heard  the  birds  sing  in  the  morning. 

The  winds  will  come  from  the  distant  south. 

I  shall  be  queen  of  the  May. 

The  hills  are  covered  with  a  carpet  of  green. 

We  shall  seek  the  early  fruits  in  the  sunny  valley. 

The  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

From  shore  to  shore  it  was  free. 

On  the  shore  stands  a  lovely  cottage. 

LESSON  LXV. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

321.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  coiv 
nect  sentences,  or  the  parts  of  sentences. 

Ex. — The  horse  fell  over  the  precipice,  bid  the  rider 
escaped.  The  horse  and  rider  fell  over  the  precipice. 

A  pure  conjunction  forms  no  part  of  the  material  or  substance  of  the 
sentence.  Its  office  is  simply  to  unite  the  materials  into  a  single  struc- 
ture. A  mixed  conjunction,  or  connective,  forms  a  part  of  the  sentence, 
and  at  the  same  time  joins  the  parts  together;  as,  "This  is  the  pencil 
which  (both  object  and  connective}  I  lost." 

>-  322.  All  connectives  (whether  pure  conjunc- 
tions or  conjunctive  words)  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  coordinate  or  subordinate. 

323.  Coordinate  connectives  join  similar  ele- 
ments. 

Ex. — John  and  James  were  disciples. 

What  is  a  conjunction  ?  How  are  they  divided  ?  What  do  coordinate 
connectives  join  ? 


12$  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Here  John  and  James  are  similar  in  construction,  and 
have  a  common  relation  to  the  predicate. 

324.  Subordinate    connectives    arc    those 
which  join  dissimilar  elements. 

Ex. — I  shall  go  when  the  stage  arrives. 

Here  when  joins  the  clause  when  the  stage  arrives,  a  de- 
pendent expression,  to  its  principal,  the  verb  shall  go.  It 
forms  a  part  of  the  clause  which  it  connects. 

325.  Coordinate    connectives    are    always 
conjunctions,    and   may   be    divided    into    three 
classes : — 

1.  Copulative;  as,  and,  also,  even. 

2.  Adversative;  as,  but,  yet,  still,  however. 

3.  Alternative ;  as,  or,  nor,  either,  neither. 

326.  Subordinate  connectives  are  also  divided 
into  three  classes  : — 

1.  Those  which  connect  substantive  clauses ;  as,  that, 
that  not. 

2.  Those  which  connect  adjective  clauses ;    as,  who, 
which,  what,  that. 

3.  Those  which  connect  adverbial  clauses  ;  as — 
PLACE. —  Where,  whence,  whither,  wherever,  whithersoever. 
TIME. —  When,  while,  before,  ere,  until,  till,  whenever, 

whensoever. 

CAUSE. — For,  because,  as,  since,  lest,  that. 
MANNER. — How,  so  as,  so  that. 

327.  MODEL. 

Socrates  and  Plato  were  distinguished  philosophers. 

"What  do  subordinate  connectives  join?  How  are  coordinate  connect- 
ives divided?  How  are  subordinate  connectives  divided?  Give  ex- 
am  pies  of  each  kind. 


LESSON   SIXTY-FIFTH.  129 

And  (1)  is, a  conjunction;  it  is  used  to  connect  sentences, 
or  the  parts  of  a  sentence. 

(2)  coordinate;  it  connects  similar  elements, 

(3)  It  connects  Socrates  and  Plato. 

(4)  KULE  XI. — Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to 

join  similar  elements. 

Either  Lucia  or  Julia  will  come. 

Either  is  a  coordinate  conjunction  (alternative),  used  as 
correlative  of  or. 

Or  is  a  coordinate  conjunction  (alternative),  and,  with 
'its  correlative  either,  connects  Lucia  and  Julia. — RULE  XI. 

1.  Parse  the  following  conjunctions : — 
Clouds  and  darkness  are  round  about  him. 

I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to  the  barbarians. 
Mordaunt  neither  spoke  nor  moved  after  his  fall. 
My  punishment  is  greater  than  I  can  bear. 
Thou  art,  and  wert,  and  shalt  be  a  great,  life-giving, 
life-sustaining  potentate. 

Oh !  that  those  lips  had  language. 
I  hope  that  Edward  will  not  be  rash. 

2.  Write  appropriate  connectives  in  place  of  the  dashes 
in  the  following : — 

you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  nothing. 

the  cat  is  away,  the  mice  will  play. 

I  shall  love  the  sea, it  is  his  grave. 

Samuel his  brother  came  to  town. 

3.  Let  the  learner  write  examples  containing  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  speech,  in  any  of  their  uses. 


130  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  LXVI. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

328.  An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  ex- 
press some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind. 

Ex. — Alas  !  I  have  chid  away  my  friend. 

329.  The  principal  interjections  are — 

Hey,  hurrah,  huzza,  aha,  hah,  ah,  ho,  lo,  hallo,  fie, 
pshaw,  tush,  alas,  woe,  alack,  O,  hist,  hush,  mum,  &c. 

330.  MODEL. 

O  lightly,  lightly  tread. 

0  (1)  is  an  interjection;  it  expresses  some  strong  or  sudden 
emotion  of  the  mind. 

(2)  It  has  no  grammatical  relation  with  any  other  word. 

(3)  RULE  X. — The  nominative  case  independent,  and 

the  interjection,  have  no  grammatical  relation  to 
the  rest  of  the  sentence. 
Parse  the  following  interjections: — 

Hark !  they  whisper,  angels  say, 
"  Sister  spirit !  come  away !" 
Wo  for  my  vine-clad  home ! 
O  grave,  where  is  thy  victory ! 
Ah  me !  how  sad  my  lot ! 

HEM,— The  teacher  who  has  thus  far  kept  up  the  constant  practice  of 
requiring  written  exercises  and  written  corrections  of  the  actual  errors 
of  his  pupil  has  prepared  the  way  for  a  successful  course  in  Syntax. 

What  is  an  interjection? 


LESSON   SIXTY-SEVENTH.  131 


SYNTAX. 


LESSON  LXVII. 

SENTENCES. 

331.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sen-r 
tences. 

332.  A  (sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  in 
words. 

EXAMPLE. 
Boy  learned. 

Here  a  thought  is  expressed,  because  something  is  declared  of  the 
boy ;  but  it  is  indefinite.  What  boy  ?  To  answer  this  question,  we  must 
give  him  a  descriptive  name;  that  is,  we  must  so  describe  him  as  to  distin- 
guish him  from  all  other  boys  (16).  To  show  that  some  particular  boy 
is  meant,  we  join  the.  Thus : — 

The  boy. 

To  distinguish  him  from  all  large  boys,  we  join  little.     Thus : — 

The  little  boy. 

To  distinguish  him  from  negligent  and  unfaithful  boys,  we  add  a  e?e- 
scriptive  expression.  Thus  : — 

The  little  boy  who  never  neglected  his  duty. 

Thus  we  have  the*  specific  name  of  this  particular  boy.  But  he  learned 
what  ?  And  we  have — 

Learned  his  lessons. 

To  show  how  he  learned  them,  we  have — 

Learned  his  lessons  carefully. 

Of  what  does  Syntax  treat?     What  is  a  sentence? 


132  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

To  show  when  he  did  it,  we  have — 

Learned  his  lessons  carefully  during  the  time  assigned 
for  study. 

Thus,  we  have  the  definite  name  ending  at  duty,  and  the  definite  state- 
ment ending  at  study — 

The-little-fooy-who  never  neglected  his  duty — learned- 
his  lessons-carefully-during  the  time  assigned  for  study. 

In  saying  this,  we  are  supposed  to  know  the  boy,  and  to  know  what  he 
did.  If  we  had  not  known  the  boy,  we  might  have  inquired — 

Who  learned  his  lessons,  &c. 

Or,  if  a  boy  were  idle,  we  might  command  him  thus : — 

Learn  your  lessons,  &c. 

Or,  if  he  had  learned  his  lessons  very  soon,  we  might  have  expressed 
surprise  by  exclaiming  thus : — 

Have  you  learned  your  lessons  so  soon ! 

REM. — The  teacher  will  find  that  any  labor  bestowed  at  this  point  in 
developing  definite  sentences  from  such  indefinite  ones  as,  man  came,  dog 
barked,  thief  ran,  hero  fought,  <fcc.,  will  be  abundantly  rewarded,  in  giv- 
ing the  pupil  a  clear  idea  of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  and  their  various  uses. 
The  aid  of  the  living  teacher  is  needed  here.  Make  use  of  a.ny  familiar 
subject.  Let  the  examples  be  both  oral  and  written. 

333.  All  sentences  are  either  declarative, 
interrogative,    imperative,     or     exclama- 
tory. 

334.  A  declarative  sentence  is  one  which 
declares  something. 

Ex. — The  boy  came. 

Let  the  pupil  compare  this  with  "Did  the  boy  come?"     "Come,  boy." 

335.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  which 
asks  a  question. 

Ex. — Who  broke  my  slate  ? 

Compare  this  with  "  He  broke  my  slate ;"  "  Don't  break  my  slate." 

Name  the  four  different  kinds  of  sentences.  What  is  a  declarative 
sentence?  An  interrogative? 


LESSON    SIXTY-EIGHTH.  133 

336.  An  imperative  sentence  is  one  which 
expresses  a  command. 

Ex. — Put  up  your  books. 

Compare  this  with  "  Where  are  your  books  ?"    "  Your  books  are  on  the 
floor." 

337.  An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  which 
contains  an  exclamation. 

Ex. — How  art  thou  fallen !     How  cold  it  is ! 

338.  Exercise. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  an  excellent  plan  to  read  short  sentences  to 
the  class,  requiring  them  to  distinguish  the  different  kinds  by  the  ear. 

1.  Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  in  these 
examples,  and  construct  or  select  others  like  them : — 

The  heat  is  oppressive. 
How  vivid  is  the  lightning ! 
Believe  ye  that  I  can  do  this  ? 
Children,  obey  your  parents. 

Shall  the  Turk  still  pollute  the  soil  sanctified  by  the 
brightest  genius  ? 

2.  Write  five  sentences  of  each  kind,  and  change  them 
from  one  kind  to  another. 

LESSON  LXVIII. 

PROPOSITIONS. 

339.  Every  sentence  must  contain  at  least  one 
principal  proposition. 

Ex. — The  ice  melts.    Can  he  read  ?    Bring  me  a  pencil. 
O,  how  it  rains !     I  shall  remain,  if  he  comes. 

What  is  an  imperative  sentence?   An  exclamatory  ?    What  must  every 
sentence  contain  ? 


134 

Such  a  proposition  as,  "  If  he  comes,"  is  not  a  sentence,  but  only  a 
part  or  element  of  a  sentence.  While  every  sentence  must  contain  at  least 
one  independent  or  principal  proposition,  it  may  contain  any  number  of 
others,  either  principal  or  subordinate.  When  propositions  are  thus  com- 
bined, they  are  called  clauses.  A  clause,  therefore,  is  always  a  proposition* 
but  a  proposition  is  not  always  a  clause;  it  is. sometimes  an  entire  sentence. 

340.  A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a 
subject  and  a  predicate. 

Ex. — The  ocean — roars.  Who — wrote  it  ?  Run — [thou]. 
How  fresh — the  breeze — is  ! 

341.  The  subject  represents  that  of  which 
something  is  said  or  affirmed. 

Ex. — The  lilies  fade.  What  do  you  want?  Give. [pit] 
me  your  name.  What  a  noise  he  makes ! 

342.  The  predicate  represents  that  which  is 
said  or  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Ex. — The  waves  dash.  What  have  you  found  f  Feed 
my  sheep.  What !  have  you  lost  that  also ! 

The  predicate  is  sometimes  that  which  is  denied  of  the  subject;  as, 
"  The  door  is  not  shut."  But  to  deny  is  only  to  affirm  a  negative.  In 
general,  affirm  is  here  used  to  apply  to  every  kind  of  proposition,  inter- 
rogative, imperative,  and  exclamatory,  as  well  as  declarative. 

343.  The    subject    usually   represents    some 
object,  and  the  predicate  some  attribute  of 

that  object. 

Attribute  means  that  which  belongs  to  or  pertains  to  an  object,  express- 
ing some  action,  quality,  class,  state,  or  condition  of  it.  Since  in  every 
proposition  some  one  of  these  must  be  affirmed,  that  which  is  affirmed 
is  called  the  attribute  of  the  proposition;  and  the  verb  which  affirms  it, 
thereby  connecting  it  with  the  subject,  is  called  the  copula.  When  an 

What  is  said  of  clauses  ?  What  is  a  proposition  ?  What  is  the  sub^ 
ject?  What  is  the  predicate?  In  what  sense  is  the  word  "affirm"  here 
used?  What  do  the  subject  and  predicate  usually  represent  ? 


LESSON   SIXTY-EIGHTH.  135 

attribute  is  assumed  of  the  subject,  that  is,  used  without  assertion,  as 
if  taken  for  granted,  it  is  the  attributive  or  adjective  element  of  the  propo- 
sition. 

Ex. — The  apple  is  sweet.     The  wind  blows. 

344.  Attributes  are — 

1.  Those  which  denote  the  class  of  objects ;  as,  beast, 
bird,  tree.     The  lion  is  a  beast.     The  eagle  is  a  bird. 

2.  Those  which  denote  the  qualities  of  objects ;  as,  goody 
old,  sweet.     The  fruit  is  good.     The  fence  is  old. 

3.  Those  which  denote  the  actions  of  objects;  as,  run, 
crawl,  fly.     Boys  run.     Serpents  crawl. 

4.  Those  which  denote  some  state,  condition,  or  circum- 
stance of  an  object ;  as,  first,  over,  in  health.  He  is  first. 
The  rain  is  over.  They  are  in  health. 

345.  An  attribute  may  be  represented  as  joined 
to  an  object  in  two  ways  : — 

1.  It  may  be  assumed  of  it ;  as,  blue  sky,  rough  sea, 
poisonous  reptiles. 

2.  It  may  be  predicated  of  it;  as,  The  sky  is  blue; 
the  sea  is  rough ;  reptiles  are  poisonous.^ 

The  teacher  will  easily  fix  this  distinction  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  by 
taking  any  familiar  thing,  as  a  globe,  and  calling  upon  him  to  name  any 
attributes  of  it,  as  round,  smooth,  rough,  large,  small,  &G.,  requiring  him 
at  the  same  time  to  affirm  each ;  thus  :  The  globe  is  round, — the  globe  is 
smooth, — the  globe  is  large,  <fec. ;  and  then  to  assume  each;  thus:  The 
round  globe,  the  smooth  globe,  &c.  This  exercise,  varied  and  repeated, 
will  make  this  fundamental  idea  entirely  familiar. 

346.  When  an  attribute  is  assumed  of  an  ob- 
ject, it  is  said  to  modify  or  limit  it  (18). 

347.  When  an  attribute  is  predicated  of  an 
object,  the  words  form  a  proposition. 

How  many  kinds  of  attributes  are  there?  In  how  many  ways  may  on 
ft.ttribute  be  joined  to  an  object?  When  the  attribute  is  predicated,  what 
i=  formed?  What  is  said  when  the  attribute  is  assumed? 


136 

The  predicate  consists  of  two  parts, — some  form  of  the  verb  "to  be/' 
called  the  copula,  and  the  attribute;  as,  "The  fruit  is  ripe."  These  two 
parts  may  be  combined  in  one  word ;  the  predicate  is  then  always  a  verb, 
which  is  itself  equivalent  to  the  copula  and  attribute;  as,  "The  winds 
roar"  =  are  roaring.  So  that  the  predicate  is  either  a  verb,  or  it  contains 
a  verb.  See  Lesson  IX. 


348.  Exercise. 

1.  Name  any  objects  which  contain  these  qualities : — 
Yellow,  smooth,  cold,  pure,  clear,  wild,  heavy. 
Assume  and   then  predicate  them.      Tell  which   ex- 
amples form  propositions,  and  which  contain  merely  a 
limited  noun. 

2.  Name  any  qualities  which  belong  to  these  objects : — 
Tree,  brook,  gold,  clouds,  sponge,  rose. 

Assume  and  then  predicate,  as  above. 

3.  Point  to  any  five  objects  which  you  can  see,  and  tell  the 
class  to  which  they  belong,  remembering  that  the  common 
name  of  an  object  indicates  its  class.     (See  Lesson  XV.) 
Assume  and  predicate  each.     Thus: — 

This  object,  a  pencil.     This  object  is  a  pencil.    Charles, 
a  scholar.     Charles  is  a  scholar. 

4.  Name   any   appropriate   actions   for  the  following 
objects : — 

Birds,  fishes,  children,  serpents,  dogs. 
Assume   and   predicate  these   actions   of  appropriate 
objects : — 

Fly,  slide,  weave,  run,  play,  study,  drive. 

5.  Which  of  the   following   combinations   are   propo- 
sitions?    Which  are  not?    Name  the  subjects.     Name  the 
limited  nouns. 

Of  how  many  parts  does  the  predicate  consist?     What  remark  upon 
the  predicate  when  these  two  parts  are  combined? 


LESSON    SIXTY-EIGHTH.  137 

The  men  are  idle.  A  white  horse. 

The  setting  sun.  The  snow  is  falling. 

The  stars  twinkle.  Trees  falling. 

Pale  ink.  Ice  melts. 

6.  Change  these  last  examples  by  predicating  the  as- 
sumed and  assuming  the  predicated  attributes  ;  then  name 
the  subjects  and  the  limited  nouns. 

7.  Analyze  the  following  examples.     Write  and  ana- 
lyze as  many  more  of  your  own.     See  Model  below. 

The  robin  sings. 
The  weather  is  cold. 
The  house  was  built. 
"Who  brought  the  news  ? 
Where  is  my  pen  ? 
Eead  the  Morning  Journal. 
The  story  was  false. 

Model. — "The  robin  sings"  is  a  proposition  (also  a 
sentence,  839),  because  it  is  the  combination 
of  a  subject  and  a  predicate  (34O). 

Tlte  robin  is  the  subject ;  it  represents  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed. 

Sings  ...  is  the  predicate ;  it  represents  what  is  af- 
firmed. 

model. — "  The  wild  ox  of  the  prairie "  is  not  a  sen- 
tence, because  no  attribute  is  predicated  of 
ox ;  but,  by  assuming  attributes, 

Ox is  limited  (1)  by  wild  (344,  2),  distin- 
guishing it  from  the  tamed  or  domesticated 
ox ;  (2)  by  of  the  prairie  (344,  4),  denoting 
the  place  where  it  is  found.  Thus  we  have  a 
descriptive  name  of  the  ox,  distinguishing  it 
from  all  others.  See  332,  Ex. 

These  descriptive  names,  by  pointing  out  individual  objects,  supply 
the  want  of  proper  nouns  (170). 


138  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  LXIX. 

CLASSES   OF   PROPOSITIONS   AND    SENTENCES. 

349.  Propositions    are    divided   into    two 
classes, — -principal  and  subordinate. 

350.  A  principal  proposition  contains  the 
principal  or  leading  assertion :  it  is  that  on  which 
the  subordinate  depends. 

Ex. — When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom. 

Here,  "the  flowers  will  bloom"  is  the  principal  proposition,  because 
it  will  make  sense  by  itself.  Not  so  with  "  when  spring  comes."  Try 
every  proposition  by  this  test:  Will  it  make  sense  when  taken  alone? 

351.  A  subordinate  proposition  is  one  which, 
by  means  of  a  subordinate  connective,  depends 
upon  some  part  of  the  principal  proposition. 

Ex. —  When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom. 

"When  spring  comes"  does  not  make  sense  by  itself;  it  depends  upon 
or  is  subordinate  to  "  will  bloom."  Take  away  the  subordinate  connective 
\chen,  and  it  will  make  sense  alone. 

352.  Exercise. 

1.  Separate  the  following  sentences  into  their  propo- 
sitions, and  tell  which  are  principal  and  which  are  sub- 
ordinate : — 

The  vessel  which  he  has  so  long  expected  has  arrived. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  who  preached  the  first  crusade,  was 
a  native  of  Amiens,  in  France. 

I  thought  that  Eugenia  was  sincere. 

While  I  was  musing,  the  fire  burned. 

Into  how  many  classes  are  propositions  divided?  What  is  a  principal 
proposition  ?  What  is  a  subordinate  proposition  ? 


LESSON   SIXTY-JSINTH.  139 

I  will  write  when  my  mother  has  arrived. 
I  shall  not  sail  for  Europe  until  the  winter  has  passed. 
Norman  has  lost  the  watch  which  his  father  sent  him. 
Where  thou  goest,  I  will  go. 

Model. — The  vessel  which  he  has  so  long  expected  has 
arrived. 

This  sentence  contains  two  propositions,  a  principal 
and  a  subordinate.  "  The  vessel  has  arrived  "  is  the 
principal;  it  contains  the  leading  assertion,  and 
makes  sense  alone.  "  Which  he  has  so  long  ex- 
pected" is  the  subordinate, — because,  like  an  adjec- 
tive, it  depends  upon  "  vessel,"  by  means  of  the  con- 
nective "  which  ;"  it  does  not  make  sense  alone. 

353.  Propositions  of  the  same  kind,  that  is, 
both  principal  or  both  subordinate,  are  said  to  be 
similar ;  those  of  different  kinds  are  said  to  be 
dissimilar. 

354.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  pro- 
position. 

Ex. — The  wind  blows. 

Here  observe  one  principal  proposition.  Is  "  if  you  come"  a  sentence  ? 
Why?  Is  it  a, proposition?  Is  it  a  clause ?  See  339,  Rem. 

355.  A  complex  sentence  contains  at  least 
two  propositions,  one  of  which  must  be  principal 
and  the  rest  subordinate. 

Ex. — When  the  wind  blows,  the  trees  bend. 

Here  observe  that  "the  trees  bend"  would  make  sense  alone,  nnd  that 
"when  the  wind  blows"  would  not,  and  that  both  together  make  the  sen- 
tence. 


What  are  similar  propositions?     Dissimilar?     What  does  a  simple 
sentence  contain  ?     A  complex  ? 


140  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

356.  A  compound  sentence  contains  at  least 
two  principal  propositions. 

Ex. — The  winds  blow  and  the  trees  bend. 

Here  either  clause  makes  sense  alone;  yet  both  together  make  the  sen- 
tence. In  this  and  the  preceding,  mark  the  clauses. 

A  complex  sentence  must  have  dissimilar  propositions;  it  may  also 
have  two  similar  subordinate  propositions;  as,  "  I  knew  where  lie  was, 
and  icJien  he  left."  A  compound  sentence  must  have  two  similar  principal 
propositions;  it  may  also  have  with  these  subordinate  propositions  $  ;:s, 
"The  wicked  flee  when  no  man  pursueth;  but  the  righteous  arc 
bold  as  a  lion  [is]." 


357.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  which  sentences  in  the  following  exercise  are 
simple,  which  are  complex,  and  which  are  compound : — 

The  gathering  darkness  of  night  comes  on. 

If  it  should  storm,  the  lecture  will  be  postponed. 

Herman  left  the  home  of  his  childhood,  and  he  re- 
turned no  more. 

The  waters  dance  gayly  along. 

The  dews  of  night  began  to  fall,  and  the  moon  silvered 
the  ruined  abbey. 

The  scenes  which  we  loved  in  childhood  are  still  dear 
to  us. 

2.  Write  six  examples  illustrating  the  different  kinds 
of  sentences. 

Model. — "  Man  is  mortal "  is  a  simple  sentence,  be- 
cause it  contains  but  one  proposition. 

Would  "since  man  is  mortal"  be  a  simple  sentence? 

"  The  clouds  were  gathering  as  we  reached  the  shore " 
is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  contains  two  propo- 
sitions, only  one  of  which  is  principal.  Point  out  the 

What  does  a  compound  sentence  contain  ? 


LESSON   SEVENTIETH.  141 

principal  and  the  subordinate.  What  is  the  connect- 
ive ?  How  can  you  tell  which  clause  is  the  principal 
and  which  is  subordinate  ?  Doe's  either  alone  form 
the  sentence  ?  Would  the  second  clause  be  subordi- 
nate if  the  connective  were  taken  away  ? 
"The  sun  went  down  in  its  glory,  and  the  twilight 
began  to  fade  from  the  western  sky/'  is  a  compound 
sentence;  it  contains  two  similar  propositions,  both 
of  which  are  principal.  How  many  clauses  has  it  ? 
Would  both  be  principal  if  the  connective  were  taken 
away?  How,  then,  does  this  connective  differ  from 
the  preceding  (322)  ? 


LESSON  LXX. 

ELEMENTS     OF     SENTENCES. 

358.  The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  its  com- 
ponent parts,  each  standing  for  an  idea  and  its 
relation. 

Ex. — The   shepherd  gave  the  alarm  

when  he  discovered  the  approach  of  the  wolf. 

NOTE. — Shepherd)  in  this  example,  becomes  an  element  only  when  it 
is  put  in  relation  to  gave.  So  gave  becomes  an  element  by  virtue  of  its 
relation  to  shepherd;  and  so  of  the  others.  The  learner  should  bear  in 
mind  that  a  thought  is  analyzed  when  separated  into  its  several  ideas; 
a  sentence  is  analyzed  when  separated  into  the  expressions  for  those  ideas. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence  above,  we  have  four  principal  ideas  and  the  same 
number  of  expressions.  Who  gave?  The  shepherd.  What  did  the  shep- 
herd do  ?  Gave.  What  did  he  give  ?  The  alarm.  When  did  he  give 
it  ?  When  he  discovered  the  approach  of  the  wolf.  The  learner  should 
unite  in  one  group  all  the  words  which  express  the  idea. 


359.  All   elements  are  divided,   according  to 

What  are  the  elements  of  a  sentence?     Explain  the  general  method 
of  analyzing  a  sentence. 


142  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

their  ranJc  or  relation  to  each  other,  into  prin- 
cipal and  subordinate ;  and  when  two  of  the 
same  kind  are  united,  they  are  coordinate 
with  each  other. 

Thus,  every  sentence  must  have  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate: hence  these  two  are  principal;  as,  "Pupils  study." 
A  sentence  may  also  have  an  adjective  element,  an  objective 
element,  and  an  adverbial  element.  These  three  depend 
upon  and  modify  the  other  two :  hence  they  are  subordi- 
nate; as,  "Faithful pupils study gram- 
mar   carefully."  It  will  be  seen  that  a  sentence  may 

contain  five  distinct  elements,  two  principal  and  three 
subordinate. 

This  distinction  between  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  parts  of  a 
sentence  is  similar  to  that  which  has  just  been  made  in  propositions. 
"Faithful"  does  not  make  sense  alone,  but  when  joined  to  "pupils"  as 
its  principal,  both  together  show  a  limited  number  of  pupils.  (Sea  Rule 
II.,  below.)  In  the  same  manner  "grammar"  and  "carefully"  are  sub- 
ordinate to  "  study,"  and  limit  it. 

360.  The  influence  which  one  element  has 
over  another  in  construction  may  be  expressed 
by  the  following  rules : — 

RULE  I. — The  principal  element  always 
controls  or  governs  the  subordinate. 

That  is,  it  causes  the  subordinate  either  to  agree  with 
itself,  or  to  take  some  particular  case,  mode,  or  tense.  The 
former  is  called  agreement;  the  latter,  government.  Thus, 
the  adjective  implying  number  agrees  in  number  with  the 
noun ;  as,  "  These  (not  this)  books ;"  the  verb  agrees  in 
number  and  person  with  the  subject;  as,  "I  walk;"  the 

How  are  elements  divided  according  to  their  rank  or  relation  ?  What 
are  coordinate  elements  ?  What  are  the  principal  elements  of  a  sentence  ? 
Give  Rule  I.  How  docs  the  principal  element  control  the  subordinate? 


LESSON   SEVENTIETH.  143 

predicate  noun  or  pronoun  agrees  in  case  with  the  subject; 
as,  "J  am  he."  So  also  the  noun  in  apposition.  The 
government  of  the  superior  term  is  effected  either  directly, 
as,  "Solomon's  temple," — or  by  means  of  a  connective;  as, 
"The  temple  of  Solomon!'  So  also  of  the  objective  case, 
"We  saw  him;"  "We  looked  at  him."  So  of  the  sub- 
junctive mode:  "Should  it  rain,  I  shall  not  go;"  "If  it 
should  rain,  I  shall  not  go." 

RULE  II. — The  subordinate  element  al- 
ways modifies  or  limits  the  principal. 

That  is,  it  restricts  a  general  to  a  particular  applica- 
tion ;  as,  "The  people  (not  all  people,  but  those)  of  Maine" 
(348,  7). 

RULE  III. — Coordinate  elements  neither 
govern  nor  modify  each  other. 

That  is,  the  one  in  no  way  affects  the  case,  mode,  tense, 
number,  person,  agreement,  or  application  of  the  other;  as, 
"  He  informed  you  and  me."  Here,  me  is  not  in  the 
objective  because  it  is  coordinate  with  you,  but  because  it 
is  the  direct  object  of  informed. 

These  three  general  principles  involve  nearly  all  the  particular  rules 
of  Syntax.  * 

361.  All  elements  are  divided,  according  to 
their  use  as  a  whole,  into  substantive,  adjee- 
tive,  and  adverbial. 

EXAMPLES. 

WORDS.  PHRASES.  CLAUSES. 

Substantive.    Song.  To  sing.  That  one  should  sing. 

Adjective.        Wise  man.       Man  of  wisdom.  Man  who  is  ivise. 

Adverbial.      Rising  early.  At  sunrise.  When  the  sun  rises. 

Give  Rule  II.  Rule  III.  How  are  all  elements  divided  according  to 
their  nature  arid  use?  Give  the  examples. 


144  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

To  classify  elements  according  to  their  use  as  a  whole,  the  learner  has 
only  to  ask,  in  case  of  a  word,  what  part  of  speech  it  is;  and  in  case  of  a 
group  of  words,  what  part  of  speech  it  would  be  if  the  same  idea  were 
expressed  by  one  word. 


362.  Exercise. 

Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  elements  in  these  ex- 
amples, and  tell  which  are  principal  and  which  are  sub- 
ordinate. 

Clinton  will  go  to  the  sea-side  to-morrow. 

The  splashing  surf  is  refreshing. 

Yesterday,  the  word  of  Caesar  might  have  stood  against 
the  world. 

Times  of  greatest  calamity  and  confusion  have  been 
productive  of  the  greatest  minds. 

The  hall  of  the  mansion  is  spacious. 

The  lawn  in  front  extends  to  the  sea. 

The  restless  waves  over  which  Sir  William  Pepperell 
sought  fortune,  still  glitter  in  the  sunbeams. 

As  we  ascend  the  staircase,  paintings  of  angels'  heads 
decorate  the  hall  window. 

Error  is  a  hardy  plant;  it  flourisheth  in  every  soil. 

Few  and  precious  are  the  words  which  the  lips  of  Wis- 
dom utter. 

Model. — "Clinton  will  go  to  the  sea-side  to-morrow" 
is  a  simple  sentence  (354).  The  principal 
elements  are  the  subject,  Clinton,  and  the 
predicate,  will  go  (359).  The  subordinate 
elements  are  the  adverbial  element  of  place, 
to  the  sea-side,  which  limits  will  go  (36O,  Rule 
II.),  and  the  adverbial  element  of  time,  to-day, 
which  also  limits  will  go. 


LESSON   SEVENTY-FIRST.  145 

LESSON  LXXI. 

ELEMENTS,    CONTINUED. 

363.  Elements  are  divided,  according  to  their 
form,  into  the  first5  second^  and  third  classes. 

364.  They  are  either  words,  plirases,  or 
clauses. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The — sun — shines — brightly,"  the  elements 
(358,  NOTE)  are  single  words ;  in  the  sentence,  "  The — streets — of  tlie 
city — were  filled — with  snow"  the  elements  in  italics  are  phrases;  in  the 
example,  "  The  land — ichich  lies  near  the  river  is  very  fertile/'  the  element 
in  italics  is  a  clause. 

A  simple  element  of  the  first  class  is  a  single  ivord, 
representing  both  an  idea  and  its  relation ;  as,  "  Good 

boys study grammar carefully."  Here 

each  word  represents  not  only  a  distinct  idea,  but  also  its 
relation  to  another  idea. 

A  simple  element  of  the  second  class  is  a  phrase  con- 
sisting of  two  words,  one  representing  an  idea,  and  the 

other  its  relation ;  as  "  John  lives in  hope."  Here, 

if  we  leave  out  in,  the  relation  will  not  be  represented : 
"  John  lives  hope ;"  if  we  leave  out  hope,  the  idea  will  be 
wanting :  "  John  lives  in."  Both  must  be  represented  by 
separate  words,  in  the  simplest  possible  form  of  the  ele- 
ment. Hence  the  difference  between  an  element  of  the 
first  and  an  element  of  the  second  class.  Simple  elements 
of  the  second  class  are  usually  the  infinitive,  or  the  prepo- 
sition and  its  object  taken  together.  The  predicate,  when 
composed  of  the  copula  and  the  attribute,  is  properly  an 
element  of  the  second  class. 


How  are  elements  divided  according  to  their  form?  What  is  a  simple 
clement  of  the  first  class  ?  What  is  a  simple  element  of  the  second  class  ? 
What  are  they  usually  ? 

10 


146  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Any  two  united  words  form  a  phrase  ;  as,  very  strongly,  wise  counsels  ; 
but  in  these  examples  both  words  represent  ideas.  In  an  element  of  the 
second  class  one  word  stands  for  an  idea  and  the  other  for  its  relation ; 
as,  in  haste,  with  joy. 

A  simple  element  of  the  third  class  is  a  clause  consist- 
ing of  a  proposition  to  represent  an  idea,  and  a  connective 

to  show  its  relation ;  as,  "  I  know that  he  went" 

Compare  this  with  the  two  preceding. 

365.  Exercise. 

1.  Classify  the  elements  in  the  following  examples : — 
James  walked  through  the  garden. 

Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor. 

A  peace  which  consults  the  good  of  both  parties  is  the 
surest,  because  both  parties  are  interested  in  its  preserva- 
tion. 

The  army  marched  slowly  forward. 

The  Greeks  took  Troy  by  stratagem. 

Honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

2.  Write    sentences   containing   words,  phrases,   and 
clauses  as  elements. 

Model. — "  We — were  walking — in  the  garden — as  the 
sun  sank  below  the  western  horizon. " 

This  is  a  complex  sentence  (355).     Read 
and  distinguish  the  clauses. 

We  ....  is  the  subject  (341)  ;  it  is  a  single  word. 

Were  walking  is  the  predicate  (342) ;  it  is  a  phrase 
(364) — not  usually  separated,  though  were 
expresses  the  relation  (predicate  relation) 
and  walking  the  idea  of  action. 

In  the  garden  is  a  phrase, — an  adverbial  element,  de- 
noting the  place  of  walking ;  it  has  the  pre- 

What  is  a  simple  element  of  the  third  class? 


LESSON   SEVENTY-SECOND.  147 

position  in  to  connect  and  show  the  relation, 
and  garden — the  object — to  show  the  idea  of 
place.  It  is  subordinate  to  were  walking,  and 
limits  its  meaning  (SCO,  Rule  II.). 

As  the  sun  sank  below  the  western  horizon  is  a 
clause  (364  and  351),  denoting  the  time  of 
walking,  and  is  subordinate  to  and  limits 
(360,  Rule  II.)  ivere  walking,  having  as  to 
connect  and  show  the  relation,  and  the  pre- 
position to  show  the  idea. 


LESSON  LXXII. 

366.  Elements  are  divided,  according  to  their 
state  or  condition,  into  simple,  complex,  or 
compound. 

A  simple  element  is  a  single  expression  for  an  idea  and 
its  relation,  without  modification  or  addition.  It  may  be 

either  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause ;  as,  "  We  left 

early — at  dawn — as  day  dawned." 

The  unmodified  subject  is  called  the  simple  or  gram- 
matical subject;  the  unmodified  predicate,  the  simple  or 
grammatical  predicate ;  and  so  of  all  the  other  elements. 

A  complex  element  is  a  simple  element  modified  by 
one  or  more  elements  subordinate  to  it.  It  is  of  the  first, 
the  second,  or  the  third  class  when  the  simple  element, 
called  its  basis,  is  of  the  first,  the  second,  or  the  third 

class  ;  as,  "  We  left  — very  early — at  early  dawn — as 

day  first  dawned  in  the  east."  (Compare  these  examples 
with  the  preceding.) 

How  are  elements  divided  according  to  their  state  or  condition  ?  What 
ia  a  simple  element?  What  is  the  simple  subject?  Predicate?  What  ia 
a  complex  element? 


148 

The  modified  subject  is  called  the  complex  or  logical 
subject;  and  so  of  all  other  elements. 

A  compound  element  is  the  union  of  two  or  more  coor- 
dinate, simple,  or  complex  elements.  The  component  parts 
may  be  either  of  the  first,  the  second,  or  the  third  class ; 
as,  "  We  are  employed — early  and  late.'1  "  We  are  em- 
ployed— at  noon  and  at  night"  "  We  were  travelling — • 
when  the  wind  was  blowing  furiously,  and  when  the  storm  was 
beating  against  our  carriage." 

The  coordinate  subjects  taken  together  are  called  the 
compound  subject;  and  so  of  all  the  other  elements. 

367.  Exercise. 

Classify  the  following  elements  : — 
The  dying  king  tried  every  remedy  in  vain. 
Clouds  and  darkness  are  round  about  him. 
Kighteousness  and  truth  are  the  habitation  of  his  throne. 
Eva  accepted  the  invitation  with  pleasure. 
With  trembling  limbs  and  faltering  steps,  he  departed 
from  his  desolate  home. 

The  lever  which  moves  the  world  of  mind  is  the  print- 
ing-press. 

We  closed  the  dim  and  lifeless  eye, 

We  smoothed  the  parted  hair, 
And  decked  the  sleeping  form  with  flowers ; 
But  no  bright  soul  was  there. 

GENERAL  REMARK. — It  may  not  be  best,  in  the  practical  analysis  of 
sentences  for  this  Intermediate  Course  (see  Hem.,  p.  54),  to  introduce  all 
the  distinctions  of  the  elements.  The  fundamental  requisite  is  to  recog- 
nize the  subject,  the  predicate,  and  the  words  or  groups  of  words  which 
modify  each,  and  to  point  out  carefully  the  limiting  effect  of  each.  Such 
an  analysis  is  sufficient  to  determine  the  prominent  parts  of  the  sentence. 

What  is  the  modified  subject  called?  What  is  a  compound  element? 
What  is  the  compound  subject? 


LESSON    SEVENTY-THIRD.  149 

But  for  the  purpose  of  noting  the  different  forma  of  expression  which  per- 
vade the  language,  the  more  minute  distinctions  of  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses,  with  their  varieties,  must  be  made.  For  a  full  development,  see 
English  Grammar,  or  Analysis  of  Sentences. 

Model. — "  When  we  took  our  leave,  the  evening  star 
was  setting  in  the  west." 

This  is  a  complex  sentence  (355),  declara- 
tive (334).  The  principal  proposition  (35O) 
is  "  the  evening  star  was  setting  in  the  west ;" 
the  subordinate  proposition  (351)  is  "when 
we  took  our  leave." 

Star  ....  is  the  subject  (341)  of  the  principal  proposi- 
tion (and  hence  of  the  whole  sentence). 

Was  setting  is  the  predicate  (342).  The  subject  is 
limited  by 

The  and  evening, — the  showing  that  some  particular  star 
is  meant,  and  evening  showing  the  time  of  its 
appearance. 

The  predicate  is  limited  by  the  phrase 

In  the  west,  showing  where  it  was  setting ;  also,  by  the 


When  we  took  our  leave,  showing  when  it  was  setting. 

HEM. — The  teacher  may  require  the  pupil  to  point  out  the  elements 
more  minutely,  after  this  kind  of  general  analysis,  or  not,  as  he  chooses. 
For  examples  of  a  closer  analysis,  see  Models  under  the  Rules,  below. 


LESSON  LXXIII. 

DEFINITIONS   AND   RULES. 

368.  To  construct  a  sentence,  is  to  combine 
its  several  elements. 

369.  To  analyze  a  sentence,  is  to  separate  it 
into  its  several  elements. 

What  is  it  to  construct  a  sentence?     To  analyze  it? 


150 

370.  To  classify  sentences,  is  to  tell  whether 
they  are   (1)  simple,  complex,  or  compound ;   (2) 
declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclama- 
tory. 

371.  To  transform  a  sentence,  is  to  change 
its  form,  either  by  altering,  transposing,  suppress- 
ing,  or  supplying  any  of  its  elements,  without 
materially  changing  the  meaning. 

372.  To  reconstruct  a  sentence,  is  to  express 
the  same  thought  in  other  words. 

373.  To  parse  a  sentence,  is  to  name  the  class 
(parts  of  speech)   of  each  of  its  words,  and  to 
give  their  modifications,  relations,  agreement,  or 
government,  and  the  rules  for  their  construction. 

374.  To  correct  a  sentence,  is  to  alter  it  so  as 
to  make  it  conform  to  the  rules  of  construction. 

375.  A  Rule  of  Construction  is  a  state- 
ment of  the  law  which  governs  the  form  and 
the  use  of  a  word  in  construction.     The  follow- 
ing are  the  principal  rules : — 

RULE  I. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of 
a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

RULE  II. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute 
of  a  proposition  after  the  finite  verb  to  be,  or  any  intransi- 
tive or  passive  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

RULE  III. — A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antece- 
dent in  gender,  number,  and  person. 

What  is  it  to  classify  sentences  ?  To  transform  a  sentence  ?  To  re- 
construct it?  To  parse  it?  What  is  it  to  correct  a  sentence?  Give  Rule 
I.  Rule  II.  Rule  III. 


LESSON   SEVENTY-THIRD.  151 

KULE  IV. — The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number  and  person. 

RULE  V. — An  adjective  or  a  participle  must  belong  to 
some  noun  or  pronoun ;  as,  "  The  guilty  man  ;"  "  The  man 
was  guilty"  Or,  more  specifically, — 

(1.)  An  adjective  or  a  participle  used  as  the  attribute 
of  a  proposition  after  the  verb  to  be,  or  any  intransitive  or 
passive  verb,  belongs  to  the  subject;  as,  "  The  tree  is  tall;" 
"  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant;"  "  Where  the  funds  will  be 
obtained  is  doubtful" 

(2.)  An  adjective  or  a  participle  used  to  limit  or  qua- 
lify a  noun,  belongs  to  the  noun  which  it  modifies ;  as, 
"  An  upright  judge ,"  "  Five  boxes ;"  "  The  good  old  man." 

RULE  VI. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  explain  or 
identify  another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in 
the  same  case. 

RULE  VII. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  limit  another 
noun,  by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the  possessive 
case. 

RULE  VIII. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  object 
of  a  transitive  verb,  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

RULE  IX. — Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  partici- 
ples, adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

RULE  X. — The  nominative  case  independent,  and 
the  interjection,  have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

RULE  XL — Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to  con- 
uect  similar  elements. 

RULE  XII. — When  a  verb  or  a  pronoun  relates  to  two 
or  more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  conjunction, — 

Give  Rule  IV.  Rule  V.  Rule  VI.  Rule  VII.  Rule  VIII.  Rule 
IX.  RuleX.  Rule  XL  Rule  XII. 


152  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

(1.)  If  it  agrees  with,  them  taken  conjointly,  it  must 
be  in  the  plural  number. 

(2.)  But  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it 
must  be  of  the  same  number  as  that  which  stands  next  to  it. 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must 
take  the  number  of  that  one. 

RULE  XIII. — A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation 
of  its  object  to  the  word  on  which  the  latter  depends. 

RULE  XIV. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  object 
of  a  preposition,  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

RULE  XV. — Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  join 
dissimilar  elements. 

RULE  XVI. — The  infinitive  has  the  construction  of 
the  noun,  with  the  signification  and  limitations  of  the  verb, 
and  when  dependent  is  governed  by  the  word  which  it 
limits. 

RULE  XVII. — Participles  have  the  construction  of 
adjectives  and  nouns,  and  are  limited  like  verbs. 


LESSON  LXXIV. 

SI  MPLS  SENTENCES ELEMENTS  OF  THE 

FIRST  CLASS WORDS. 

376.  An  element  of  the  first  class  is  a  single 
icord. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  SUBJECT. 

377.  The  subject  is  always  put  in  construction 
with  the  predicate,  and  by  the  following  rule : — 

Give  Rule  XIII.     Rule  XIV.     Rule  XV.     Rule  XVI.     Rule  XVII 
With  what  is  the  subject  always  put  in  construction .' 


LESSON    SEVENTY-FOURTH.  153 

RULE  I. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the 
subject  of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case. 

Ex. —  Ccesar  conquered  Gaul. 

HEM. — This  rule  is  universal.  Whatever  is  used  as  the  subject,  whe- 
ther a  letter,  a  syllable,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause,  is  of  the  nature  of  a  noun, 
and  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

378.  Caution  and  Exercises. 

379.  CAUTION. — Never  use  the  objective  as  the  subject  of  a 
finite  verb.  Say,  "  I  did  it,"— not  "  Me  did  it." 

I.  CONSTRUCTION. — Construct  five  other  sentences  like 
any  of  the  following  in  (1),  (2),  (5),  or  (6)  :— 

(1.)  (Subject  and  predicate  expressed.)  Time  flies.  She 
reads.  Ida  walks.  Jesus  wept.  Kings  reign.  Fruit  ripens. 
I  live. 

(2.)  (Subject  understood.)  Come.  Study.  Awake. 
Arise.  Go.  See.  Return.  Behold. 

Model. — "Come"  is  a  sentence ;  its  subject  is  understood. 
I  supply  "  tiiou"  "  you,"  or  "ye"  Thus,  "  Come  thou." 

(3.)  (Subject  wanting.)  buzz.  study.  

drink.  play.  frisk. 

Model. — "Buzz"  is  not  a  sentence;  it  has  no  subject. 
I  add  "  bees."  Thus,  "  Bees  buzz." 

(4.)  (Parts  to  be  combined.)  Wind  roar;  he  speak;  she 
sit ;  it  snow. 

5.  (Something  inquired  for.)    Who  whistles?     Where  is 
he  ?     Which  is  lost  ?     When  will  you  come  ? 

6.  (An  exclamation.)    How  it  rains !     Let  me  alone ! 
What !  have  you  come ! 

Model. — "Wind  roar"  is  not  a  sentence;    the  parts 

Give  Rule  I.     The  remark  upon  it.     The  caution. 


154  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

are  not  combined.  I  change  "wind"  to  "winds." 
Thus,  "Winds  roar." 

2.  ANALYSIS. — Analyze  the  preceding  sentences. 
Model. — "  Time  flies "  is  a  sentence ;  it  is  a  thought 

expressed  in  words.  "Time"  is  the  subject;  it  is  that 
of  which  something  is  affirmed.  "  Flies"  is  the  predi- 
cate ;  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

3.  PARSING. — Parse  the  subjects  in  the  preceding  ex- 
amples.    See  for  a  model  207. 

4.  CLASSIFICATION. — Classify  (1)  the  preceding  sen- 
tences; (2)  their  elements. 

Thus,  "  Time  flies"  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence ; 
simple,  it  contains  but  one  proposition;  declarative,  it 
declares  something.  "  Come"  is  a  simple,  imperative  sen- 
tence. Why  ?  The  subject  and  predicate  in  each  is  an 
element  of  the  first  class,  each  being  a  single  word  ex- 
pressing an  idea  and  its  relation. 

NOTE. — Classification,  analysis,  and  parsing  may  be  combined.  Thus, 
"  Time  flies"  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence.  "  Time"  is  the  subject, 
and  "  flies"  is  the  predicate ;  both  elements  of  the  first  class.  "  Time"  is 
a  common  noun,  <fcc. 

5.  TRANSFORMATION.  —  Transform  the  preceding  sen- 
tences. 

(1.)  Change  them  to  interrogative.  Thus,.  "  Does  time 
fly?" 

(2.)  Change  them  to  imperative,  and  point  out  the 
transpositions.  Thus,  "  Fly  thou,  time." 

(3.)  Change  them* to  exclamatory.     "  How  time  flies !" 

(4.)  In  (2),  suppress  the  subject  and  nominative  inde- 
pendent. Thus,  "  Fly." 

(5.)  Change  the  number,  person,  and  gender  (when  it 
can  be  done)  of  the  subjects,  and  explain  the  consequent 
changes  in  the  predicate.  Substitute  pronouns  for  each 
of  the  subject-nouns,  and  explain  their  agreement  by 
Kule  III. 


LESSON  SEVENTY-FIFTH.  155 

6.  CORKECTION. — Correct  by  the  Caution  the  following 
examples,  and  find  any  similar  ones  on  pages  52  and  53 : — 
Claud  and  me  are  going  together.  Him  that  is  stu- 
dious will  improve.  Lionel  will  find  the  lost  lamb  sooner 
than  me.  Who  told  you  that  story?  Him  and  her.  I 
knew  it  as  well  as  her.  Them  are  the  books  I  wanted. 
Did  they  say  whom  was  coming  ? 

Model. — "  Claud  and  me  are  going  together"  is  incor- 
rect, because  the  objective  pronoun  me  is  made  the 
subject  of  the  verb   "  are  going."     It  should  be  (see 
Caution)  "  Claud  and  I  are  going  together." 
Correct    any   improper  expressions  which    you  have 
heard  to-day. 

LESSON  LXXV. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  PREDICATE. 

380.  The  predicate  is  put  in  construction  with 
the  subject  by  one  of  the  following  rules  : — 

RULE  II. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the 
attribute  of  a  proposition  after  the  finite  verb 
"to  be/'  or  any  intransitive  or  passive  verb,  must 
be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Ex. — It  is  he;  they  are  philosophers. 

RULE  V.     SPECIFIC  RULE.  (I.) 

An  adjective  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  pro- 
position after  the  finite  verb  "  to  be,"  or  any  in- 
transitive or  passive  verb,  belongs  to  the  subject. 

Ex. — The  war  was  sanguinary. 

With  what  is  the  predicate  put  in  construction  ?  Give  Rule  II.  Give 
Special  Rule. 


166  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

RULE  IV. — The  verb   must  agree   with   its 
subject  in  number  and  person. 
Ex. — I  am;  thou  art  sitting. 

381.  Rule  II.—  Caution  and  Exercises. 

382.  CAUTION. — Never  use  the  objective  as  the  attribute. 
Say,  "  It  is  //'—not  "  It  is  me." 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  the  following  (in 
1),  and  fill  the  blanks : — 

(1.)  (Sub.  and  pred.  expressed.)  Gold  is  a  metal.  It 
is  she.  It  is  I.  Panama  is  an  isthmus. 

(2.)  (Subject  wanting.)  is  an  island.  is  he. 

is  a  merchant. 

(3.)  (Attribute  wanting.)  Boston  is  a  .  Borneo 

is  an .  It  is . 

(4.)  (  Copula  wanting.)  George my  brother.  Paul 

an  apostle.  Nero a  tyrant. 


2.  Analyze,  classify,  and  parse  the  foregoing  sentences. 
Model.  —  "Gold  is  a  metal"  is  a  simple,  declarative 

sentence.  Why?  "Gold"  is  the  subject,  and  "is  a 
metal"  is  the  predicate.  Why  ?  "  Is"  is  the  copula, 
and  "  metal"  is  the  attribute.*  "  Gold"  is  a  common 
noun,  &c.  (Model,  p.  74.)  "  Is"  is  an  irregular  in- 
transitive verb,  &c.  (Model,  p.  121.)  "Metal"  is  a 
common  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  and  nominative  case.  It  is  used  as  the  attri- 
bute after  "  is,"  according  to  Rule  II. 

3.  Transform  any  of  the  foregoing  examples,  as  in  the 
previous  Lesson. 

Give  Rule  IV.     The  caution  under  Rule  II. 


*  The  predicate,  when  formed  of  the  copula  and  attribute,  is  pro- 
perly an  element  of  the  second  class,  being  a  phrase.  It  is  most  con- 
veniently discussed  here,  but  will  be  found  in  its  proper  place  hereafter.- 


LESSON   SEVENTY-FIFTH.  157 

4.  Correct  the  following  examples: — 
It  is  me.     Whom  is  it?     It  is  him.     Whom  do  you 
think  it  is  ?     It  is  not  them/ 


383.  Kule  V.— Specific  Rule  (I.)— Exercise. 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  the  following: — 
Delays  are  dangerous.     George  was  lame.     They  will 

be  rich.  He  might  have  been  deceitful.  We  were  suc- 
cessful. Who  was  merciful?  Be  active.  Will  they  be 
peaceful?  Be  content. 

NOTE. — Let  the  teacher,  if  he  deems  it  necessary,  add  other  exam- 
ples with  the  subject,  attribute,  or  copula  wanting.  Let  the  pupils  be 
required  to  use  adjectives  as  attributes  in  propositions  of  their  own. 

2.  Analyze,  classify,  and  parse  the  preceding  exam- 
ples : — 

Model. — "  Be  active"  is  a  simple,  imperative  sentence. 
Why?  "Thou"  understood  is  the  subject.  "Why? 
"Be  active"  is  the  predicate,  of  which  "be"  is  the 
copula  and  "  active"  the  attribute.  "  Be"  is  an  irregu- 
lar, intransitive  verb,  imperative  mode,  present  tense, 
second  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  "  thou,"  un- 
derstood. (Kule  IV.)  "Active"  is  an  adjective  used 
as  the  attribute  after  "  be,"  and  belongs  to  "  thou," 
understood.  (Kule  V.)  Special  Kule  (1),  "An  ad- 
jective used  as  the  attribute,"  &c. 

3.  Transform  any  of  the  foregoing  examples  as  in  the 
previous  Lesson. 

384.  Rule  IV.— Cautions  and  Exercises. 

385.  CAUTION  I. — Avoid  the  use  of  a  singular  verb  with 
a  plural  subject,  or  a  plural  verb  with  a  singular  subject. 

Give  Rule  IV.     Caution  I. 


158  GKEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Say,  "Where  were  you?" — not  "Where  was  you?" 
"  Each  of  his  brothers  was  well," — not  "  Each  were  well." 

386.  CAUTION  II. — Be  careful  not  to  use  the  wrong  verb, 
as,  set  for  sit ;  lay  for  lie ;  come  for  go ;  nor  the  wrong  form, 
as,  done  for  did ;  wrote  for  written ;  nor  the  wrong  tense,  as, 
see  for  saw ;  give  for  gave ;  nor  improper  contractions,  as, 
ain't  for  are  not. 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  the  following: — 
Water  flows.      Kings  have  reigned.     Vice  degrades. 

Will  winter  come?  Bead.  James  may  have  written. 
Isabel  sings.  Begone,  wretch ! 

NOTE. — Let  the  teacher  require  other  examples,  if  necessary,  giving 
the  subjects,  and  leaving  the  predicates  blank,  <fec.  See  previous  lessons. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  preceding  examples ; 
also,  those  you  have  constructed. 

NOTE. — For  models,  see  the  preceding. 

3.  Transform  the  preceding  sentences.     Change  the 
modes,  tenses,   and  forms  of  the  verbs.     Give  a  synopsis 
of  the  verbs. 

4.  Correct  (Caution  I.)  the  following  examples : — 
There's  ten  of  us  going.     Was  you  sheltered  from  the 

rain?  Henry  need  not  be  so  positive.  Randolph  dare 
not  do  wrong.  Circumstances  alters  cases.  A  number 
of  spectators  were  already  there.  The  captain,  with  all 
the  crew,  were  lost. 

5.  Correct  (Caution  II.)  the  following  examples : — 

I  seen  Peter  when  he  done  it.  Amanda  had  broke  my 
pencil.  Tell  the  boys  to  set  still.  The  cat  laid  down  by 
the  fire.  I  didn't  meant  to  done  it.  Ella  is  going  to  lay 
down.  Augustus  has  wrote  his  letter.  Ain't  it  queer! 
Ain't  they  ever  going  home?  Eliza  knowed  her  spelling 
lesson  better  than  Joseph. 

Give  Caution  II, 


LESSON  SEVENTY-SIXTH.  159 

LESSON  LXXVL 

AGREEMENT  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE   PRONOUN. 

The  agreement  of  the  pronoun  is  according  to 
the  following  rule : — 

RULE  III. — A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its 
antecedent  in  gender,  number,  and  person. 

Its  construction,  like  that  of  the  noun,  depends  upon  its 
relation  in  the  sentence;  it  may  be  in  the  nominative,  the 
possessive,  or  the  objective  case. 

REM.  1. — The  personal  pronoun  it  is  often  used  without  an  ante- 
cedent. 

Ex. — It  rains ;  it  thunders. 

Sometimes  it  represents  an  object  indefinitely,  in  order  to  predicate  it 
by  name. 

Ex. — It  is  a  peony;  it  is  Charles. 

Sometimes  it  is  used  as  an  expletive  (to  fill  a  vacancy). 

Ex. — Come  trip  it  as  you  go. 

REM.  2. — Two  rules  should  be  given  in  parsing  a  personal  pronoun, 
one  for  its  agreement,  and  one  for  its  construction.  In  case  of  a  relative 
pronoun,  we  must  add  Rule  XV.  to  show  its  connection,  and  for  what, 
whatever,  and  whatsoever,  Rule  V.  to  explain  its  value  as  an  adjective. 

REM.  3. — The  relative  pronoun  has  a  restrictive  and  an  explanatory 
use;  the  former,  when  like  an  adjective  it  limito  the  meaning  of  the  ante- 
cedent; the  latter,  when  it  explains  or  adds  some  circumstance  connected 
with  it. 

Ex. — (Restrictive.)  Those  who  are  industrious  and  frugal  will  be 
rewarded.  (Explanatory.)  He  gave  me  a  book,  which  he  requested  me  to 
read. 

REM.  4. —  What,  whatever,  and  other  compound  relatives,  generally, 
have  a  double  construction;  they  represent  both  the  antecedent  and  the 
relative.  For  a  more  full  discussion  of  these,  see  English  Grammar, 
p.  217. 

Cautions  and  Exercises. 

CAUTION  I. — Avoid  the  use  of  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  as 

Give  Rule  III.     Caution  I. 


160  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

subject  or  object  of  the  same  verb,  unless  great  emphasis  is 

required. 

Say,  "  The  boy  did  it,"— not  "  The  boy  he  did  it." 
CAUTION  II. — Avoid  the  use  of  a  plural  pronoun  having 

a  singular  antecedent. 

Say,  "  Let  every  one  attend  to  his  work," — not  "  their 

work." 

CAUTION  III. — Avoid  the  use  of  who  when  speaking  of 
animals  and  inanimate  objects,  and  of  which  when  speaking 
of  persons. 

Say,  "The  hawk  which  caught  the  jay," — not  "who 
caught."  "The  carpenter  who  built  the  house," — not 
"which  built." 

CAUTION  IV. — Avoid  the  use  of  the  interrogative  who 
when  the  construction  requires  whom. 

Say,  "Whom  did  you  see?" — not  "Wfio  did  you  see?" 
1.  Construct  five  examples  containing  a  personal  pro- 
noun, five  containing  a  simple  relative,  five  containing  a 
compound  relative,    and  five  containing  an  interrogative; 
and  parse  the  pronouns  in  the  following  examples. 
(1.)  The  plums  are  ripe ;  they  are  delicious. 
(2.)  The  trout  which  Fisher  caught  weighed  one  pound. 
(3.)  He  is   welcome  to  what  information  he  has  ob- 
tained. 

(4.)  Who  brought  the  news  last  evening? 
Model. — "She  was  grateful  for  what  attentions  she 
received"  is  a  complex,  declarative  sentence,  of  which 
"she"  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause,  and  con- 
sequently of  the  sentence,  and  "was  grateful"  is  the 
predicate.  "Was  grateful"  is  limited  by  the  expres- 
sion "  for  w7hat  attentions  she  received,"  which  shows 
for  what  she  was  grateful.  The  expression  contains 

Give  Caution  TI.     Caution  III.     Caution  IV. 


LESSON   SEVENTY-SEVENTH.  161 

two  parts, — "  for  attentions"  and  "  what  she  received." 
"Attentions"  is  governed  by  "for,"  and  limited  by 
"  what"  —  those,  and  by  "  what  she  received"  —  which 
she  received.  The  first  use  of  what  is  as  adjective,  limit- 
ing "attentions,"  by  Kule  V.  The  second  is  as  rela- 
tive, governed  by  "  received,"  Rule  VIII.  It  agrees 
with  "  attentions "  in  person,  number,  and  gender, 
Rule  III.;  it  connects  the  clause  "what  she  received" 
to  "  attentions,"  Rule  XV. 

2.  Correct  by  the  Cautions  the  following  examples : — 
I  tell  you,  Harry  he  came  rushing  into  the  room.    Mary, 

poor  girl,  she  arrived  an  hour  too  late.  If  any  one  has 
borrowed  my  slate,  I  wish  they  would  return  it.  Some 
one  has  been  here,  for  they  left  the  door  open.  The  horse 
who  was  killed  by  lightning  belonged  to  Mr.  Jones,  which 
bought  him  only  the  day  before.  Who  did  you  invite  to 
the  party?  Who  will  he  take  as  a  companion? 

3.  Construct  three  complex  sentences  containing  rela- 
tive pronouns. 

Can  there  be  a  relative  pronoun  in  a  simple  sentence?    Can  there  be  9 
conjunctive  adverb  in  a  simple  sentence  ? 


LESSON  LXXVIL 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   THE   ADJECTIVE   ELEMENT. 

387.  The   adjective   element   is   put  in   con- 
struction with  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

NOTE. — The  adjective  element  of  the  sentence  is  put  in  construction 
with  the  subject. 

388.  When  the  adjective  element  is  an  ad- 
jective, it  is  subject  to  the  following  rule: — 

With  what  is  the  adjective  element  put  in  construction  ? 
11 


162  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

SPECIFIC  RULE  (2). 

(See  Rule  V.)  An  adjective  or  a  participle  used 
to  limit  or  qualify  a  noun,  belongs  to  the  noun 
which  it  modifies. 

HEM.  1. — The  limiting  adjective  is  usually  placed  before  the  qualify- 
ing ;  as,  "  This  old  man ;"  "  this  valuable  hint." 

REM.  2. — A  or  an  belongs  to  nouns  in  the  singular  number;  as,  "A 
book;"  "an  apple."  But  before  few,  hundred,  and  thousand  it  seems  to 
belong  to  a  plural  noun;  as,  "A  hundred  ships;"  "a  few  men;"  "a 
thousand  pounds." 

HEM.  3. — The  belongs  to  nouns  either  singular  or  plural;  as,  "The 
man ;  the  men."  For  the  use  and  the  omission  of  the  article,  see  English 
Grammar. 

389.  When  the  adjective  element  is  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun,  it  is  subject  to  the  following  rules: — 

KULE  VI. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  ex- 
plain or  identify  another  noun  or  pronoun,  is 
put  by  apposition  in  the  same  case. 

Ex. — William  the  conqueror  defeated  Harold  the  Saxon 
king. 

KULE  VII. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  limit 
another  noun,  by  denoting*  possession^  must  be 
in  the  possessive  case. 

Ex. — Stephen's  courage  failed.     Whose  book  is  this  ? 

REM. — When  two  or  more  possessive  nouns  are  connected  coordinately, 
if  they  imply  the  possession  of  one  object  in  common,  the  sign  is  applied 
only  to  the  last ;  as,  "  Little  and  Brown's  store ;"  but,  if  they  imply  the 
possession  of  Different  objects  of  the  same  name,  the  possessive  sign 
should  be  apjned  to  each ;  as,  "  I  have  an  Emerson's  and  a  Greenleafs 
Arithmetic." 


Rule  V.  (Special  2)  ?    Give  Remark  1.    Remark  2.    Remark  3.     Give 
KuU  VI.     Give  Rule  VII. 


LESSON   SEVENTY-SEVENTH.  163 

890.   Cautions  and  Exercise  for  Specific  Rule  (2), 
Rule  V. 

391.  CAUTION  I. — Never  use  "a"  before  a  word  begin- 
ning  with  the  sound  of  a  vowel,  nor  "an"  before  a  word 
beginning  with  the  sound  of  a  consonant.  Say,  "An  apple," — 
not  "  a  apple." 

392.  CAUTION  II. — Avoid  the  use  of  a  plural  adjective 
to  limit  a  singular  noun.     Say,  "  That  sort  of  people," — 
not  "  those  sort." 

393.  CAUTION  III. — Never  use  the  pronoun  "them"  for 
the  adjective  " those"     Say,  "  Those  books," — not  " them 
books." 

394.  CAUTION  IV. — Avoid  the  use  of  the  adjective  for 
the  adverb.     Say,  "  Speak  promptly" — not  "prompt." 

1.  Construct  other  examples  like  each  of  the  follow- 
ing:— 

(1.)  (One  limiting  adjective.) — This  man  came.  Five 
dogs  ran.  The  ink  fades.  Some  scholars  study. 

(2.)  (  One  qualifying  adjective.) — Old  wood  burns.  Wise 
men  err.  Wicked  men  fear.  Cold  winter  comes. 

(3.)  (Tivo  limiting.) — The  first  dawn  appeared.  The 
two  travellers  returned.  The  second  class  recites. 

(4.)  ( One  Urn.  and  one  qual.) — Every  new  lesson  puz- 
zles. Any  good  book  instructs.  Many  old  houses  fell. 
The  new  toy  pleases. 

(5.)  (Two  qualifying.) — Good  little  children  obey. 
Pretty  wild  flowers  grew. 

(6.)  (One  lim.  and  two  qual.) — The  little  feathered 
songster  warbles.  That  ambitious  young  man  excels. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  foregoing  examples. 

Give  Caution  I.  under  Rule  V.    Caution  II.    Caution  III.    Caution  IV. 


164  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Model. — "  Cold  winter  comes"  is  a  simple  declarative 
sentence.  Why?  "Winter"  is  the  simple  subject; 
it  is  the  subject  without  modification  or  addition. 
"Comes"  is  the  predicate.  Why?  Both  are  ele- 
ments of  the  first  class.  Why?  "Cold  winter"  is 
the  complex  subject;  it  is  the  simple  subject  with  all 
its  modifications.  "Winter"  is  limited  by  "cold,"  a 
simple  adjective  element  of  the  first  class.  It  shows 
ivhat  kind  of  winter  it  is.  "  Cold "  is  a  qualifying 
adjective  of  the  positive  degree.  See  Model,  p. 

3.  Transform  the  foregoing  sentences,  as  in  previous 
lessons. 

4.  Correct  the  following  examples : — 

(1.)  (CAUTION  I.)  He  wore  an  uniform  at  the  ball. 
Arnold  was  not  a  honorable  man.  I  do  not  like  such  an 
one  as  that.  This  is  an  hard  saying.  Hugh  has  been  gone 
a  hour. 

(2.)  (CAUTION  II.)  I  do  not  like  those  kind  of  words. 
The  lot  is  fifty  foot  wide.  We  went  about  six  mile  an 
hour. 

(3.)  (CAUTION  III.)  Tell  them  boys  to  be  still.  Them 
apples  are  quite  ripe.  Them  are  the  keys.  Harry  is  fond 
of  them  things. 

(4.)  (CAUTION  IV.)  Beatrice  speaks  Italian  fluent,  and 
plays  the  harp  beautiful.  The  stream  flows  silent  on.  I 
am  exceeding  sorry  that  it  was  not  ready  sooner. 

395.  Eule  VI.— Exercises. 

1.  Construct  two  other  examples  like  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing:— 

(1.)  (Simple  element.)  King  Latinus  ruled.  Queen 
Mary  reigned.  President  Taylor  died.  General  Wash- 
ington commanded. 


LESSON   SEVENTY-SEVENTH.  16<3 

(2.)  (Complex  element.*)  Bunyan,  the  distinguished  au- 
thor, endured.  Demosthenes,  the  celebrated  orator,  de- 
claimed. Arnold,  the  base  traitor,  escaped. 

(3.)  ( Compound  element.)  The  Presidents,  Washington, 
Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe,  and  Tyler,  were  Virginians. 
The  sovereigns,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  united  Castile  and 
Arragon. 

(4.)  (  Complex  and  compound  element.)  Those  sisters,  the 
cruel  Mary  and  the  sagacious  Elizabeth,  were  queens  of 
England. 

3.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  preceding  examples. 

Model.  —  "Arnold,  the  base  traitor,  escaped,"  is  a 
simple  declarative  sentence.  "Arnold"  is  the  subject 
(24),  and  "  escaped  "  is  the  predicate  (25).  The  sub- 
ject is  limited  by  the  expression  "  the  base  traitor," 
showing  what  Arnold  is  meant ;  or  more  minutely 
thus, — "Arnold"  is  the  simple,  and  "Arnold,  the 
base  traitor,"  is  the  complex  subject.  "  Escaped  "  is 
the  predicate.  "Arnold"  is  limited  by  "the  base 
traitor,"  a  complex  adjective  element  .of  the  first 
class, — of  which  "traitor"  is  the  basis,  limited  by 
"the"  and  "base,"  simple  adjective  elements  of  the 
first  class.  "  Traitor "  is  a  common  noun,  third 
person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and  no- 
minative case,  and  is  used  to  identify  "Arnold,"  ac- 
cording to  Rule  VI. 

396.  Caution  and  Exercises  for  Rule  VII. 

397.  CAUTION. — Never  omit  the  sign  of  possession  in 
writing  the  possessive  of  a  noun,  nor  employ  it  in  writing 
that  of  a  pronoun.  Write  man's,  not  mans',  its,  not  it's. 

What  Caution  under  Rule  VII.  ? 


166  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

(1.)  (Simple  element.}  Mary's  mother  came.  Welling- 
ton's renown  increased.  Napoleon's  army  marched.  Wil- 
liam's invention  failed. 

NOTE. — Let  the  teacher  propose  examples  in  which  some  of  the  ele- 
ments are  wanting. 

(2.)  (Elements  complex.}  The  old  man's  daughter  awoke. 
The  merry  huntsman's  horn  aroused.  The  bright  sun's  rays 
illumine. 

(3.)  (Elements  compound.}  Mason  and  Dixon's  line 
separates.  Webster's,  Worcester's,  and  Kichardson's  Dic- 
tionary were  consulted.  (See  Kemark  under  the  Kule.) 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  preceding  examples. 
Model. — "  Wellington's  renown  increased  "  is  a  simple 

declarative  sentence.  Why  ?  "  Renown  "  is  the  simple, 
and  "Wellington's  renown"  the  complex  subject;  "in- 
creased" is  the  predicate.  "  Renown,"  the  subject,  is 
limited  by  "Wellington's,"  a  simple  adjective  element 
of  the  first  class.  Why  ?  It  shows  whose  renown  is 
meant.  "  Wellington's  "  is  a  proper  noun,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  possessive  case;  it  is  used  to 
limit  "  renown,"  by  denoting  possession,  according  to 
Eule  VII. 

3.  Transform  the  foregoing  sentences — 

(1.)  By  changing,  as  in  the  preceding  lessons. 

(2.)  By  changing  the  possessive  to  an  elemejit  of  the 
second  class  (consisting  of  the  preposition  "of"  and  its 
object)  placed  after  the  noun.  Thus,  "Mary's  mother;" 
"  the  mother  of  Mary." 

4.  Correct  by  the  Caution  the  following  examples : — 
They  studied  Websters  Spelling  Book.     This  shawl  is 

ner's.   That  is  Thomas  kite.    The  nations  hopes  are  blasted. 
Their's  let  the  profit  be. 


LESSON   SEVENTY-SEVENTH.  167 

398.  General  Exercise. 

5.  Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  any  words 
which  come  under  the  first  seven  Rules : — 

He  was  a  burning  and  a  shining  light. 
Grim  darkness  furls  his  leaden  shroud. 
Art  is  long,  and  time  is  fleeting.     "  O  "  is  a  vowel. 
Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight. 
But  Hope,  the  charmer,  lingered  still  behind. 
Hushed  were  his  Gertrude's  lips. 
Art  thou  that  traitor  angel  ? 
Angelica  Kauffman  was  a  distinguished  artist. 
Their  only  labor  was  to  kill  the  time. 
That  life  is  long  which  answers  life's  great  end. 
Your  friend  Harry  Vernon  has  become  a  distinguished 
lawyer. 

Our  harps  we  left  by  Babel's  stream. 

Charles  I.  was  beheaded. 

The  child  was  called  Maud. 

Hail,  Sabbath !  thee  I  hail — the  poor  man's  day. 

O  lives  there,  Heaven,  beneath  thy  vast  expanse, 
One  hopeless,  dark  idolater  of  chance  ? 

Boon  nature  scattered  free  and  wild, 
Each  plant  or  flower,  the  mountain's  child. 

But  when  the  sun,  in  all  his  state, 

Illumed  the  eastern  skies, 
He  passed  through  Glory's  morning  gate, 

And  walked  in  Paradise. 

6.  Collect  and  bring  in  any  violations  of  the  first  seven 
Rules,  or  of  the  Cautions  under  them. 


168  GKEENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  LXXVIIL 

THE   OBJECTIVE   ELEMENT. 

399.  The  objective  element  is  put  in  construe* 
tion  with  a  transitive  verb  by  the  following 
rule: — 

RULE  VIII. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun,  used  as 
the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  its  participles, 
must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Ex. — He  found  the  object  which  he  desired. 

HEM.  1. — The  indirect  object  which  shows  that  to  or  for  which  any 
thing  is,  or  is  done,  properly  speaking,  follows  a  preposition  understood. 
Ex. — Give  me  a  book  =  Give  to  me  a  book.  The  preposition  should 
be  used  when  the  direct  object  is  placed  first. 

HEM.  2. — The  following  verbs,  make,  appoint,  elect,  create,  constitute, 
render,  name,  style,  call,  esteem,  think,  consider,  regard,  reckon,  and  some 
others,  take  a  double  object, — the  first  direct,  or  principal, — the  second, 
its  attribute,  and  hence  called  the  attributive  object. 

Ex. — They  called  him  John. 

HEM.  3. — The  following  verbs,  buy,  sell,  play,  sing,  and  many  others, 
take  two  objects,  one  direct,  and  the  other  indirect. 
Ex. — Buy  me  a  knife. 

HEM.  4. — The  object  may  be  the  infinitive  or  a  substantive  clause. 
Ex. — The  girl  loves  to  read  ;  I  knew  that  you  would  come. 

400.  Caution  and  Exercises. 

401.  CAUTION. — Never  use  the  nominative  as  the  object 
of  a  transitive  verb.  Say,  "Whom  did  he  visit?" — not 
"Who  did  he  visit ?" 

With  what  is  the  objective  element  put  in  construction  ?  Give  Rule 
VIII.  What  remark  on  the  indirect  object?  What  verbs  take  a  double 
object?  What  is  remarked  of  the  verbs  buy,  sell,  <fcc.?  What  is  the  re- 
mark on  the  infinitive  and  the  substantive  clause?  Give  the  caution 
under  Rule  VIII. 


LESSON    SEVENTY-EIGHTH.  169 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  the  following: — 
(1.)  (Simple  objective.}    Columbus  discovered  America, 

Pizarro   conquered   Peru.      Ada  uses   perfume.      James 
killed  flies. 

(2.)  (Complex  objective.')  He  lived  a  desolate  life. 
They  found  agreeable  companions.  She  recognized  Hen- 
ry's voice.  Have  you  read  the  "  Dairyman's  Daughter"  ? 
They  burned  Huss  the  reformer.  Herod  beheaded  John 
the  Baptist. 

(3.)  (  Compound  objective.}  He  declined  the  honor  and 
the  emolument.  The  grocer  kept  dates  and  figs.  The 
legislature  passed  laws  and  resolves. 

(4.)  (Double  object.}  They  made  him  king.  He  ap- 
pointed John  monitor.  They  called  him  George.  Give 
me  flowers. 

Model. — "  They  made  him  king"  is  a  simple  decla- 
rative sentence.  "They"  is  the  subject;  "made"  is 
the  simple  and  "made  him  king"  the  complex  predi- 
cate. "  Made"  is  modified  by  "  him  king,"  a  double 
object,  both  parts  being  necessary  to  complete  the 
meaning  of  the  verb ;  "  him"  is  the  principal  and 
"  king"  the  attributive  object.  (See  Rule  VIII.,  Rem. 
2.)  Parse  each  separately,  applying  Rule  VIII.,  and 
Rem.  2. 

2.  Correct  by  the  Caution  the  following  examples : — 
Who   did   you   see  yesterday?     Who  did   he  marry? 

They  that  help  us,  we  should  reward.     Who  should  I  find 
but  my  cousin  ?     I  do  not  know  who  to  send. 

3.  Classify,    analyze,    and    parse   the    foregoing    sen- 
tences. 

Model.  —  "Columbus  discovered  America."  It  is  a 
simple  declarative  sentence.  Why  ?  "  Columbus"  is 
the  subject.  Why?  "Discovered"  is  the  simple  and 
"discovered  America"  is  the  complex  predicate. 


170      v  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

"Discovered"  is  limited  by  "America,"  a  simple  ob- 
jective element  of  the  first  class,  showing  what  Co- 
lumbus discovered.  "America"  is  a  proper  noun, 
third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  ob- 
jective case,  and  is  used  as  the  object  of  "discovered." 
Eule  VIII. 

4.  Transform    any    of    the    foregoing    sentences    by 
changing  the  object  into  the  subject,  and  the  verb  from 
the  active  to  the  passive  voice.     Thus,  "America  was  dis- 
covered by  Columbus." 

5.  Construct  and  analyze  five  sentences  having  subjects 
limited  by  complex  adjective  elements,  and  predicates 
limited  by  complex  objective  elements. 

LESSON  LXXIX. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   THE   ADVERBIAL   ELEMENT. 

402.  The   adverbial   element  is   put  in  con- 
struction with  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb,  by  the  following  rule: — 

RULE  IX. — Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs, 
participles,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Ex. — Lightning  moves  swiftly.  Walking  slowly  along, 
we  came  to  a  hill.  The  water  is  very  deep.  Move  your 
fingers  very  quickly. 

fa 
Caution  and  Exercises. 

403.  CAUTION  I. — Never  use  two  negatives  to  express  a 
negation. 

Say,  "  I  want  no  aid," — not  "  I  don't  want  no  aid." 

With  what  is  the  adverbial  element  put  in  construction?  Give 
Rule  IX.  Caution  L 


LESSON   SEVENTY-NINTH.  171 

404.  CAUTION  II. — Never  use  "  how"  before  "  that,"  nor 
instead  of  it. 

Say,  "He  said  that  he  would  come," — not  "how  that 
he  would  come,"  nor  "  how  he  would  come." 

1.  Construct  six  other  sentences  like  the  following: — 
(1.)  (Simple   adverbial  element.)      She  played   finely. 

The  campaign  opened  vigorously.  The  boat  arrived  yes- 
terday. They  ride  frequently. 

(2.)  (Complex  adverbial  element.)  She  hears  very  im- 
perfectly. They  go  too  often.  She  sews  very  neatly.  He 
managed  most  adroitly. 

(3.)  (Adverbial  element  compound.)  She  writes  rapidly 
and  neatly.  The  rain  falls  softly  and  silently.  He  came 
early  and  late. 

(4.)  (  Complex  adjective  and  complex  objective  wanting.) 

horn  aroused  early.  son  inherited 

legally. 

2.  Analyze  and  parse  the  foregoing. 

ftlodel.  — "  Lawrence  writes  carefully"  is  a  simple 
declarative  sentence.  "  Lawrence"  is  the  subject ; 
"writes"  is  the  grammatical  and  "writes  carefully" 
the  logical  predicate.  "  Writes"  is  modified  by  "  care- 
fully," a  simple  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class; 
adverbial,  because  it  is  added  to  a  verb,  and  shows 
how  he  writes ;  simple,  because  it  receives  no  modifi- 
cation or  addition;  first  class,  because  it  is  a  single 
word,  expressing  both  the  idea  of  care  and  its  relation 
to  "writes."  .  "  Carefully"  is  an  adverb  of  manner, — 
compared,  carefully,  more  carefully,  most  carefully.  It 
limits  "  writes."  Kule  IX. 

3.  Correct  by  Caution  I.  the  following  examples : — 

I  cannot  write  no  more.     Candace  says  how  that  she 

Give  Caution  II. 


172  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

won't  go  nohow.     Paul  will  never  be  no  better.   Kaymond 

hasn't  been  to  no  shop. 

4.  Correct  the  following  by  Caution  II. : — 

Ella  said  how  she  believed  it.    Just  remember  how  that 

a  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned.     Isaac  said  how  that  he 

would  come. 


INTERJECTION    AND    CASE    INDEPENDENT. 

RULE  X. — The  nominative  case  independent 
and  the  interjection  have  no  grammatical  rela- 
tion to  the  other  parts. 

1.  Construct  and  parse  other  examples  like  these: — 
(1.)  (By  direct  address.)     Plato,  thou  reasonest  well. 

Children,  obey  your  parents. 

(2.)  (By  exclamation.)  O  thought  ineffable!  O  vision 
blest!  O  my  misfortune!  when  shall  I  be  released! 

(3.)  (By  pleonasm.)  The  pilgrim  fathers,  where  are 
they?  Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome  him. 

(4.)  (Case  absolute.)  See  Special  Kule,  under  Kule 
XVII.  He  having  given  us  the  direction,  we  departed. 
Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost. 

Model.  —  "Plato,  thou  reasonest  well,"  is  a  simple 
sentence.  "Why?  "Thou"  is  the  simple  subject; 
"reasonest"  is  the  simple  and  "reasonest  well"  is  the 
complex  predicate.  "Plato"  is  a  proper  noun,  second 
person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and  nomi- 
native case  independent,  by  direct  address;  it  forms 
no  part  of  the  proposition.  Eule  X. 

2.  Construct  five  examples  containing  interjections,  and 
rjarse  them  by  the  rule. 

Model. — "Alas!  I  then  have  chid  away  my  friend." 

Give  Rule  X. 


LESSON    EIGHTIETH.  173 

"Alas"  is  an  interjection;  it  has  no  grammatical  re- 
lation to  the  rest  of  the  sentence.     Eule  X. 


405.  General  Parsing  Exercises. 

Imperial  Kome  governed  the  bodies  of  men,  but  not 
their  souls. 

The  sentinel  inquired,  "Who  comes  there?" 

Speak  softly,  for  a  breath  might  wake  her. 

Fair  daffodils !  we  weep  to  see  you  haste  away  so  soon. 

The  pilgrim  fathers,  where  are  they ! 

Sweet  day!  so  calm,  so  still,  so  bright, 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky. 

Let  us  repeat  that  prayer  in  the  hour  when  the  wicked 
assail  us.  Let  us  repeat  it  now,  and  say,  "  O  Father,  for- 
give them !" 

Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  ship  of  State! 
Sail  on,  O  UNION,  strong  and  great ! 
Fear  not  each  sudden  sound  and  shock, 
Tis  of  the  wave,  and  not  the  rock. 
Sail  on,  nor  fear  to  breast  the  sea! 
Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  are  all  with  thee. 

LESSON  LXXX. 

CONSTRUCTION    AND    USE    OF    CONNECTIVES. COOR- 
DINATE CONNECTIVES. 

(PARTIAL  COMPOUND  SENTENCES.) 

406.  Coordinate  connectives  are  used  when 
the  parts  to  be  united  are  similar.  The  sentence 
then  has  one  or  more  of  its  parts  compound,  and 
is  called  a  partial  compound  sentence. 


174  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

RULE  XI. — Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used 
to  connect  similar  elements. 

Ex. — Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  Jewish  patri- 
archs. 


407.  Exercises. 

1.  Construct  three  other  examples  like  each  of  these. 
(1.)  (Subjects  coordinate.')      Exercise   and  temperance 

strengthen  the  constitution.  Romulus  and  Remus  were 
twin  brothers. 

(2.)  (Predicates  coordinate.')  Education  expands  and 
elevates  the  mind.  Religion  refines  and  purifies  the 
affections.  No  fascinated  throng  weep,  and  m^lt,  and 
tremble  at  his  eloquence. 

(3.)  (Adj.  element  coordinate.)  Wise  and  good  men 
are  frequently  unsuccessful.  A  bright  and  glorious  pros- 
pect is  opened  by  Christianity.  A  plain  and  simple  style 
recommends  and  heightens  the  sublime. 

(4.)  (Obj.  element  coordinate.)  Pope  wrote  the  Mes- 
siah, and  the  Essay  on  Criticism.  Behold  my  mother 
and  my  brethren.  The  creation  demonstrates  God's  power 
and  wisdom. 

(5.)  (Adverbial  element  coordinate.')  The  waves  dashed 
wildly  and  furiously  against  the  boat.  Live  quietly  and 
contentedly. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  foregoing  examples. 
model. — "  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  Jewish 

patriarchs."  It  is  a  partial  compound  sentence,  be- 
cause one  of  its  parts,  the  subject,  is  compound.  It 
is  declarative.  Why?  "Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob" 
is  the  compound  subject,  consisting  of  three  component 

When  are  coordinate  connectives  used  ?     Give  Rule  XI. 


LESSON    EIGHTIETH.  175 

parts.  Name  them.  "Were  Jewish  patriarchs"  is 
the  complex,  and  "  were  patriarchs "  the  simple  pre- 
dicate ;  "and"  is  a  coordinate  conjunction,  and  is 
used  to  connect  the  similar  elements  "Isaac"  and 
"Jacob,"  according  to  Rule  XL 

3.  Construct  and  analyze  other  examples  like  the  above, 
with  the  component  parts  complex. 

4.  Transform  the  foregoing  examples  by  making  them 
into  complete  compound  sentences.     Thus : — 

"  Abraham  was  a  Jewish  patriarch,  Isaac  was  a  Jewish 
patriarch,  and  Jacob  was  a  Jewish  patriarch."  Then  sup- 
press the  common  part  and  restore  the  sentence  to  its 
present  form. 

408.  In  the  construction  of  a  verb  or  a  pronoun  which 
relates  to  two  or  more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate 
conjunction,  observe  the  following  rule : — 

RULE  XII. — (1.)  If  the  verb  or  pronoun  agrees  with 
them  conjointly,  it  must  be  in  the  plural  number. 

(2.)  But  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it 
must  be  of  the  same  number  as  that  which  stands  next 
to  it. 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must 
take  the  number  of  that  one. 

Exercises. 

Construct  other  examples  like  these : — 
(1.)  (  Conjointly.)  Charles  and  his  sister  were  absent,  but 
they  were  sent  for.    One  day  the  poor  woman  and  her  idiot 
boy  were  missed  from  the  market-place. 

(2.)  (Separately.)  Neither  his  vote,  his  influence,  nor 
his  purse,  was  ever  withheld  from  the  cause  in  which  he 
had  engaged.  Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  were 
saved. 

Give  Rule  XII. 


176  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

(3.)  (  One,  and  not  the  other.}  Charles,  and  not  his  sister 
was  absent.  The  parents,  and  not  the  child,  are  respon 
sible. 


LESSON  LXXXL 

ELEMENTS  OF   THE   SECOND   CLASS  -  RHRASES. 

409.  An  element  of  the  second  class  is  always 
a  phrase,  and  is  usually  an  infinitive  (413)  ?  a 
copula  and  an  attribute  (347?  REM.),  or  a  pre- 
position and  its  object. 

CONSTRUCTION   AND    USE    OF   THE    PREPOSITION. 

RULE  XIII.  —  A  preposition  is  used  to  show 
the  relation  of  its  object  to  the  word  on  which 
the  latter  depends. 

Ex.  —  George  went  into  the  garden. 

RULE  XIV.  —  A  noun  or  a  pronoun,  used  as  the 
object  of  a  preposition,  must  be  in  the  objective 
case. 

Ex.  —  The  ruins  of  the  Parthenon  stand  upon  the  Acro- 
polis, in  the  city  of  Athens. 

REM.  1.  —  The  preposition  is  generally  to  be  supplied  before  nouns  de- 
noting time,  measure,  distance,  value,  —  or  after  the  adjectives  like,  near, 
nigh,  worth;  as,  "He  walked  [through]  two  miles  j"  "He  is  like  [to]  his 
father/' 

1.  Construct  other  examples  like  each  of  the  follow- 


Give  Rule  XIII.     Rule  XIV.     In  what  cases  is  the  preposition  gene- 
rally omitted? 


LESSON    EIGHTY-FIRST.  177 

(1.)  (The  subject — a  phrase.}  SIMPLE. — To  love  exalts. 
To  exercise  strengthens.  To  forgive  ennobles.  To  walk 
invigorates. 

COMPLEX  AND  COMPOUND. — To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant. 
To  know  oneself  is  the  highest  wisdom.  To  soothe  thy 
sickness,  and  to  watch  thy  health,  shall  be  my  pleasure. 
To  toil  for,  and  yet  to  lose  the  reward  of  virtue,  is  the  hard 
lot  of  man. 

(2.)  (Predicate — a  phrase.)  SIMPLE.  —  Coffee  is  fra- 
grant. Medicine  is  nauseous.  He  is  a  scholar.  To  err 
is  human.  Her  hope  is  to  return.  The  lady  is  in  grief. 
To  obey  is  to  enjoy. 

COMPLEX  AND  COMPOUND. — The  present  life  is  not 
wholly  prosaic,  precise,  tame,  and  finite.  To  pray  is  to 
render  thanks  to  God,  to  adore  him,  and  to  supplicate  his 
mercy. 

(3.)  (Adjective  element — a  phrase.)  SIMPLE. — The  tem- 
ple of  Solomon  was  destroyed.  The  gates  of  the  convent 
were  closed.  The  bard  of  Avon  sleeps. 

COMPLEX  AND  COMPOUND. — Men  of  tried  character 
were  found.  An  observation  of  the  sun  in  the  meridian 
was  taken.  The  reign  of  William  and  Mary  commenced 
with  the  glorious  revolution  of  1688.  The  tops  of  Olym- 
pus and  Parnassus  reached  above  the  clouds. 

(4.)  (Objective  element — a  phrase.)  SIMPLE.  —  They 
hoped  to  succeed.  She  desired  to  write.  He  strives  to 
excel.  Ada  is  trying  to  learn. 

COMPLEX  AND  COMPOUND. — The  book  deserves  to  be 
read  with  great  care.  I  intended  to  write  a  full  account 
of  the  affair.  He  chooses  to  die  and  to  redeem  his  friend. 
She  is  led  to  engage  in  calmer  pursuits,  apd  to  seek  for 
gentler  employment. 

(5.)  (Adverbial  element — a  phrase.)  SIMPLE. — 

(a.)   Plate. — She  came  to  the  citv.     Anna  sat  in  the 


178  GREENE'S   INTRODUCTION. 

carriage.  Rain  falls  from  the  clouds.  The  lion  roars  in 
the  forest. 

(6.)  Time. — The  boat  sailed  in  .the  morning.  The  con- 
vention will  meet  on  Tuesday.  Come  at  noon.  In  the 
morning  it  flourisheth. 

(c.)  Cause. — Ella  ran  from  fear.  The  inhabitants  are 
perishing  from  famine.  The  party  were  travelling  for 
pleasure. 

(d.)  Manner.  —  The  messenger  came  in  haste.  The 
orator  spoke  with  fluency.  The  Greeks  succeeded  by 
stratagem.  Emily  was  delighted  with  her  present. 

COMPLEX  AND  COMPOUND  MISCELLANEOUS. — With 
tremMing  limbs  and  faltering  steps,  he  departed  from  his 
mansion  of  sorrow.  I  have  spent  my  days  in  darkness 
and  error.  The  commissioners  came  to  examine  the 
ground,  and  to  hear  the  statements  of  the  opposing 
parties.  On  Monday  or  Tuesday,  the  examination  will 
commence.  Across  the  lake,  through  bush  and  brake, 
resounds  the  bugle-horn. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  any  of  the  foregoing  ex- 
amples. 

Model. — "  This  ancient  city  was  situated  at  the  head 
of  the  bay/'  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  Why  ? 
" This  ancient  city"  is  the  complex,  and  "city"  the 
simple  subject.  "  Was  situated  at  the  head  of  the 
bay"  is  the  complex,  and  "was  situated"  the  simple 
predicate.  "  City,"  the  subject,  is  limited  by  "  this" 
and  "  ancient,"  two  simple  adjective  elements  of  the 
first  class.  The  predicate,  "  was  situated,"  is  limited 
by  "  at  the  head  of  the  bay,"  a  complex  adverbial 
element  of  the  second  class,  of  which  "  at  head "  is 
the  basis;  "at"  is  the  preposition,  and  "head"  the 
object;  "head"  is  limited  by  "the,"  a  simple  adjec- 
tive element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  "  of  the  bay," 


LESSON    EIGHTY-FIEST.  179 

a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  second  class ;  "  of 
bay"  is  the  basis,  "of"  the  preposition,  and  "bay" 
the  object,  and  is  limited  by  "the"  (described  as 
above).  "At"  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  rela- 
tion of  "head"  to  "was  situated."  Kule  XIII. 
"Head"  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  sing,  num., 
neut.  gen.,  obj.  case,  and  is  used  as  the  object  of  the 
preposition  "at."  Rule  XIV. 

NOTE. — The  teacher  will  often  employ  the  brief  analyses  in  these  ex- 
amples, using  the  full  Models  only  when  the  peculiar  structure  of  phrase* 
and  clauses  is  to  be  explained. 

3.  Transform  any  of  the  preceding  examples — 
(1.)  By  changing  the  class  of  the  sentence  (interroga- 
tive, imperative,  exclamatory). 

(2.)  By  transposing  the  subject  of  No.  1  (1),  and  in- 
troducing the  sentence  by  "  it."  Thus,  "  It  is  pleasant  to 
see  the  sun." 

(3.)  By  altering  any  of  the  second-class  elements  in 
No.  1  (3)  to  first-class.  Thus,  "  Solomon's  temple  was  de- 
stroyed." 

(4.)  By  transposing  the  adverbial  element  in  No.  1  (5) 
(a,  6,  c,  d}.  Thus,  "  To  the  city  she  came." 

410.  General  Exercises. 

Analyze  and  parse  the  following  examples : — 

A  distinction  ought  to  be  made  between  fame  and  true 
honor. 

I  would  calmly  and  humbly  submit  myself  to  the  good 
and  blessed  will  of  God. 

Where  was  it  when  winds  and  clouds  were  its  only 
visitors  ? 

Neither  moon  nor  stars  shine  upon  the  wanderer. 

Strong  proofs,  not  a  loud  noise,  produce  conviction. 


180  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Not  the  boys,  but  the  farmer,  was  in  fault. 
From  shore  to  shore,  from  cliff  to  cliff,  'twas  free. 
The  mountains,  like  huge  giants,  stand. 

The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  morn, 

The  swallow,  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed, 

The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

COMPLEX    SENTENCES. — ELEMENTS    THIRD    CLASS. 

An  element  of  the  third  class  is  always  a  clause 
consisting  of  a  connective  and  a  proposition. 

LESSON  LXXXII. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF    SUBORDINATE    CONNECTIVES. 

RULE  XV. — Subordinate  connectives  are 
used  to  join  dissimilar  elements. 

Ex. — He  that  hath  pity  on  the  poor  lendeth  to  the 
Lord. 

HEM.  1. — Elements  are  dissimilar  when  they  differ  in  their  nature, 
rank,  or  form.  See  Lessons  LXIX.  and  LXX. 

REM.  2. — The  subordinate  connective  unites  the  clause  which  it  intro- 
duces to  the  word  which  the  clause  limits ;  as,  "  I  perceive  that  you  need 
assistance." 

411.  Exercises. 

1.  Construct  three  oth^r  examples  like  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing :* — 

*  Simple,  complex,  and  compound  elements  are  here  mingled,  to  afford 
an  exercise  for  the  learner  in  distinguishing  and  imitating  them. 


What  is  an  element  of  the  third  class?     Give  Rule  XV.     When  are 
elements  dissimilar?     What  doe?  the  subordinate  connective  unite? 


LEbSOX    EIGHTY-SECOND.  181 

(1.)  (Subject, — a  claused)  That  lie  deceived,  became  cer- 
tain. Who  wrote  Junius's  Letters  is  uncertain.  That  their 
poetry  was  almost  uniformly  mournful,  and  that  their 
views  of  nature  were  dark  and  dreary,  will  be  allowed  by 
all  who  admit  the  authenticity  of  Ossian.  That  we  are, 
as  yet,  only  in  the  rudiments  of  the  great  science  of  edu- 
cation, cannot  be  questioned. 

(2.)  (Attribute, — a  clause.)  My  desire  is,  that  you  may 
succeed.  His  pretence  was,  that  the  storm  of  the  pre- 
ceding evening  prevented  his  attendance.  "Your  belief  is, 
that  the  enemy  has  crossed  the  country.  My  proposition 
is,  that  your  son  shall  return  to  college,  that  you  shall  go 
abroad,  and  that  the  house  shall  be  closed  during  your 
absence.  His  answer  was,  tliat  he  approved  the  plan  of 
the  measure,  and  that  he  was  confident  of  its  success. 

(3.)  (Adjective  element, — a  clause.)  Evils  which  cannot 
be  cured  must  be  endured.  He  who  reads  in  a  proper 
spirit  can  scarcely  read  too  much.  Slaves  and  savages 
who  receive  no  education  are  proverbially  indolent.  A 
cottage  which  is  shaded  with  trees,  and  which  is  situated 
far  from  the  noise  and  bustle  of  the  city,  is  a  very  pleasant 
retreat.  That  faith  which  is  one,  which  renews  and  jus- 
tifies all  who  possess  it,  which  confessions  and  formu- 
laries can  never  adequately  express,  is  the  property  of  all 
alike. 

(4.)  (  Objective  element, — a  clause.)  Many  suppose  that 
the  planets  are  inhabited.  The  insane  imagine  that  they 
alone  are  sane.  We  all  know  how  a  man  of  mighty 
genius  can  impart  himself  to  other  minds.  Every  one 
should  feel  that  his  existence  stretches  beyond  the  limits 
of  this  mortal  life.  He  heard  that  his  wife  had  fallen  a 
lingering  sacrifice  to  penury  and  sorrow;  that  his  children 
had  gone  to  seek  their  fortunes  in  distant  or  unknown 
climes ;  and  that  the  grave  contained  his  nearest  and  most 
valuable  friends. 


182 

(5.)  {Adverbial  element, — a  clause.)*  They  were  sitting 
•where  the  branches  of  a  spreading  elm  protected  them 
from  the  burning  rays  of  the  noonday  sun.  As  far  as 
the  east  is  from  the  west,  so  far  has  he  removed  our  trans- 
gressions from  us.  While  I  was  musing,  the  fire  burned. 
When  two  lines  cross  each  other,  the  opposite  angles  are 
equal.  Ye  shall  not  see  me,  because  I  go  unto  my  Father. 
Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor, 
Speak  as  you  think.  Happiness  is  more  equally  divided 
than  some  suppose.  While  the  bridegroom  tarried,  they 
all  slumbered  and  slept.  As  we  grow  older,  life  becomes 
dim.  in  the  distance.  Wherever  we  are,  we  are  not  for- 
gotten by  a  kind  Providence.  When  a  few  more  friends 
have  left  us,  a  few  more  hopes  deceived  and  a  few  more 
changes  mocked  us,  we  shall  be  brought  to  the  grave, 
and  remain  in  the  tomb.  He  takes  us  from  earth,  that 
he  may  lead  us  to  heaven,  that  he  may  refine  our  nature 
from  all  its  principles  of  corruption,  that  he  may  share 
with  us  his  own  immortality,  that  he  may  admit  us  to  his 
everlasting  habitation,  and  that  he  may  crown  us  with  his 
eternity. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  any  of  the  foregoing 
examples. 

Model. — "When  the  wicked  are  multiplied,  trans- 
gression increaseth,"  is  a  complex  declarative  sen- 
tence ;  complex,  because  it  contains  dissimilar  clauses, 
— "transgression  increaseth"  being  the  principal  and 
"when  the  wicked  are  multiplied"  the  subordinate 
clause.  "  Transgression,"  the  subject  of  the  princi- 
pal clause,  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence;  "in- 
creaseth" is  the  simple  and  "  increaseth  when  the 
wicked  are  multiplied"  is  the  complex  predicate. 

*  Let  the  learner  distinguish  those  which  denote  place,  time,  cause, 
and  manner. 


LESSON    EIGHTY -SECOND.  183 

"  Increaseth"  is  limited  by  "  when  the  wicked  are 
multiplied,"  a  complex  adverbial  element  of  the 
third  class,  of  which  "  when  wicked  (more  exactly 
"  persons"  understood)  are  multiplied"  is  the  basis. 
"  Persons"  understood  is  limited  by  "  the"  and 
"wicked;"  or  "wicked"  used  as  a  noun  is  limited 
by  "the;"  the  predicate  is  not  limited.  "When"  is 
a  subordinate  connective  (conjunctive  adverb  of 
time),  and  joins  the  adverbial  clause,  which  it  intro- 
duces, to  "  increaseth,"  the  predicate  of  the  principal 
clause.  Rule  XV.  It  limits  "  are  multiplied,"  and 
"  increaseth,"  according  to  Rule  IX. 

3.  Transform  any  of  the  foregoing  examples:— 

(1.)  By  altering  the  subordinate  clause  to  a  word  or 
phrase. 

(2.)  By  transposing  it. 

(3.)  By  changing  the  entire  sentence  to  a  declarative, 
interrogative,  &c. 

(4.)  By  making  the  subordinate  into  a  principal  clause. 
Thus,  "They  were  sitting,  and  the  branches  of  a  spread- 
ing elm  protected  them  from  the  burning  rays  of  the  noon- 
day sun." 

£5.)  Change  examples  in  No.  1  (1),  by  introducing  the 
sentence  with  "  it."  Thus,  "  It  became  certain  that  he 
deceived." 

4.  Change  any  of  the  following  adjective,  objective,  or 
adverbial  elements  into  clauses,  thus  converting  simple 
into  complex  sentences: — 

Trees  growing  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  are  taller 
than  those  on  the  summit.  A  persevering  man  will  over- 
come obstacles.  A  discontented  man  cannot  be  happy. 
I  do  not  remember  the  time  of  the  lecture.  The  ancients 
believed  the  earth  to  be  a  vast  plain.  On  our  arrival,  all 
was  bustle  and  confusion.  Thus,  "A  man  who  perseveres 
will  prosper," 


184 


LESSON  LXXXIII. 

COMPOUND  SENTENCES ELEMENTS  OF  THE 

THIRD  CLASS. 

A  compound  sentence  is  formed  by  uniting  two 
or  more  principal  propositions  by  either  of  the 
coordinate  conjunctions. 

412.  Exercises. 

1.  Construct  other  examples  like  the  following: — 

(1.)  (Copulative  clauses.)  We  shall  feel  the  same  revo- 
lution of  the  seasons,  and  the  same  sun  and  moon  will 
guide  the  course  of  our  year.  Modesty  is  one  of  the 
chief  ornaments  of  youth ;  and  it  has  ever  been  esteemed 
a  presage  of  rising  merit.  You  know  I  love  country  life, 
and  here  we  have  it  in  perfection. 

(2.)  (Adversative  clauses.)  The  man  was  communi- 
cative enough,  but  nothing  was  distinct  in  his  mind.  A 
clownish  air  is  but  a  small  defect;  yet  it  is  enough  to 
make  a  man  disagreeable.  Pope  had  perhaps  the  judg- 
ment of  Dryden ;  but  Dryden  certainly  wanted  the  dili- 
gence of  Pope.  I  believe  there  are  few  heads  capable 
of  making  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  calculations;  but  the  result 
of  them  is  not  difficult  to  be  understood  by  a  moderate 
capacity. 

(3.)  (Alternative  clauses.)  We  must  fight,  or  our  liber- 
ties will  be  lost.  Never  utter  any  profane  speeches,  nor 
make  a  jest  of  any  scriptural  expressions.  Either  he 
will  hate  the  one,  and  love  the  other,  or  else  he  will  hold 
to  the  one,  and  despise  the  other.  Neither  hath  this  man 
sinned,  nor  his  parents. 

How  is  a  compound  sent^ute  furrued  ? 


LESSON    E1GHTY-FOUKTH.  185 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  any  of  the  preceding. 
Model. — "You  know  I  love   country  life,  and   here 

we  have  it  in  perfection."  It  is  a  compound  decla- 
rative sentence;  compound,  because  it  contains  simi- 
lar clauses;  declarative,  because  it  declares  some- 
thing. "You  know  I  love  country  life"  is  the  first, 
and  "  here  we  have  it  in  perfection"  is  the  second 
principal  proposition.  They  are  coordinate  with 
each  other,  and  are  connected  by  "and,"  which  is 
a  copulative  coordinate  conjunction.  Rule  XI. 
[Analyze  each  proposition  separately,  as  a  simple 
sentence.] 

3.  Transform  any  of  the  preceding  examples  (where 
it  can  be  done)  by  changing  one  of  the  clauses  (1)  to  a 
subordinate  clause;  (2)  to  a  participial  construction. 

Model. — Play  with  a  fool  at  home,  and  he  will  play 
with  you  abroad,  =  If  you  play  with  a  fool  at  home, 
he  will  play  with  you  abroad,  =  By  playing  with  a 
fool  at  home,  he  will  play  with  you  abroad. 


LESSON  LXXXIV. 

INFINITIVE    AND    PARTICIPLE. 

413.  In  changing  a  complex  to  a  simple  sen- 
tence, we  must  change  the  verb  of  the  subordi- 
nate clause  to  an  infinitive  or  a  participle. 
These  are  then  disposed  of  by  the  following 
rules : — 

RULE    XVI. — The   infinitive  has  the  con- 


When  is  the  subordinate  clause  changed  to  the  infinitive  or  a  parti- 
ciple?    Give  Rule  XVI. 


186  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

struction  of  the  noun,  with  the  signification  and 
limitations  of  the  verb,  and,  when  dependent, 
is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits. 

Ex. — To  err  is  human.  They  desire  to  travel  in  a  foreign 
country. 

REM.  1. — The  infinitive  may  be  associated  with  the  subject  which  the 
verb  had  before  the  subordinate  clause  was  changed. 

Ex. — We  wish  that  you  would  stay  =We  wish  you  to  stay. 

Or  that  subject  may  be  dropped,  and  the  infinitive  may  appear 
without  it. 

Ex. — We  wish  that  we  might  stay  =  We  wish  to  stay. 

Special  Rule. 

The  to  of  the  infinitive  is  omitted  after  the 
active  voice  of  bid,  dare,  let,  need,  make,  see,  hear, 
and  feel. 

Ex. — I  saw  him  do  it.     You  heard  him  say  it. 

RULE  XVII. — Participles  have  the  con- 
struction of  adjectives  and  nouns,  and  are  limited 
like  verbs. 

Ex. — He  stooping  down,  and  looking  in,  saw  the  linen 
clothes  lying;  yet  went  he  not  in.  A  habit  of  sincerity 
in  acknowledging  faults  is  a  guard  against  committing 
them. 

REM.  1. — The  participle,  like  the  infinitive,  may  be  associated  with  the 
subject  which  the  verb  had  before  the  subordinate  clause  was  changed. 
When  this  subject  remains  in  the  nominative  case,  it  is  parsed  by  the 
following  special  rule  : — 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  in  the  nominative 

Give  Rule  XVII.  With  what  may  the  infinitive  be  associated  ?  Give 
Remark  I.  Give  the  rule  for  the  nominative  absolute. 


LESSON    EIGHTY-FOURTH.  187 

absolute,  with  a  participle,  when  its  case  depends 
upon  no  other  word. 

Ex. — Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost. 

REM.  2. — The  participle,  when  used  as  an  adjective,  assumes  the  action 
which  the  verb  asserts.  When  used  as  a  noun,  it  is  equivalent  to  the 
infinitive,  and  may  be  (1)  wholly  a  noun. 

Ex. — It  is  pleasant  to  walk  at  the  rising  of  the  sun. 

Or  partially  so. 

Ex. — We  should  avoid  giving  pain  to  others. 

In  the  last  example,  the  participle  retains  some  of  its  verbal  cha- 
racter, thereby  governing  "  pain." 

414.  Exercises. 

1.  Construct  three  other  examples  like  each  of  the 
following : — 

(1.)  (Inf.  and  part — subject.)  Lying  is  the  vice  of 
slaves.  To  steal  is  base.  To  forgive  is  divine.  To 
mourn  without  measure,  is  folly;  not  to  mourn  at  all, 
insensibility.  Cheating,  stealing,  swearing,  and  traducing, 
are  all  criminal.  To  deprive  me  of  liberty,  to  torture  me, 
or  to  imprison  me,  is  not  your  right. 

(2.)  (Inf.  and  part. — predicate.}  The  boat  is  ap- 
proaching. Night  is  coming.  The  ceremony  was  per- 
formed. The  boy  is  to  be  educated.  The  boat  is  to  sail 
on  Tuesday.  The  ship  was  lying  at  anchor.  The  great 
object  of  education  is,  not  to  store  the  mind  with  know- 
ledge, but  to  give  activity  and  vigor  to  its  power. 

(3.)  (Inf.  <wid  part. — adj.  element.)  Ages  yet  to  come 
will  develop  greater  improvements  in  the  arts  than  are 
now  astonishing  mankind.  A  desire  to  aid  his  friend  led 
him  to  encounter  every  danger  and  surmount  every  diffi- 
culty. The  setting  sun  is  a  beautiful  object.  Being  con- 
vinced of  his  guilt,  we  resolved  to  punish  him. 

What  is  said  of  the  participle  used  as  an  adjective?     When  used  as 


188  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

(4.)  (Inf.  and  part. — obj.  element.}  The  problem  has  to 
be  wrought  out.  It  teaches  us  to  be  thankful  for  all  favors 
received,  to  love  each  other,  and  to  be  united.  The  deca- 
logue forbids  worshipping  idols. 

(5.)  (Inf.  and  part. — adv.  element.}  They  ascended  the 
Nile  to  discover  its  source.  I  have  brought  this  flower  to 
show  you  the  peculiar  structure  of  its  petals.  The  legis- 
lature appointed  commissioners-  to  make  a  geological  sur- 
vey of  the  state.  Hope  "springs  exulting  on  triumphant 
wing." 

2.  Transform,  analyze,  and  parse  the  preceding  exam- 
ples. Thus,  li  That  one  should  steal,  is  base." 

415.  General  Exercise. 

Analyze  and  parse  the  following  examples : — 
While  there  is  life,  there  is  hope. 
Whatever  is,  is  right. 
She  hath  done  what  she  could. 
The  redbreast  loves  to  build  and  warble  there. 
Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil. 
The  storm  rising,  Julia  hastened  home. 

Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll ; — '• 
Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain. 

Then,  kneeling  down,  to  Heaven's  eternal  King 
The  saint,  the  husband,  and  the  father  prays ; 

Hope  "  springs  exulting  on  triumphant  wing," 
That  thus  they  all  shall  meet  in  future  days. 

There  is  a  glorious  city  in  the  sea ; 

The  tide  is  in  the  broad,  the  narrow  streets, 

Ebbing  and  flowing ; — and  the  salt  sea-weed 

Clings  to  the  marble  of  her  palaces. 

No  track  of  men,  no  footsteps  to  and  fro, 

Lead  to  her  gateks — the  path  lies  o'er  the  sea. 


LESSON    EIGHTY-FIFTH.  189 

Inspiring  thought  of  rapture  yet  to  be ! 
The  tears  of  love  were  hopeless,  but  for  thee. 
If  in  that  frame  no  deathless  spirit  dwell, 
If  that  faint  murmur  be  the  last  farewell, 
If  fate  unite  the  faithful  but  to  part, 
Why  is  their  memory  sacred  to  the  heart  ? 


PROSODY. 


LESSON  LXXXV. 

VERSE,    FEET,    SCANNING. 

416.  Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versifica- 
tion. 

417.  Versification  is  the  art  of  composing 
poetic  verse. 

418.  A  verse  is  a  succession  of  accented  and 
unaccented  syllables,  constituting  a  line  of  poetry. 

419.  Verse  is  of  two  kinds,  rhyme  and  blank: 
verse. 

420.  Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  sound 
in  the  last  syllables  of  two  or  more  lines. 

421.  Ulank  verse  is  without  rhyme. 

Of  what  does  Prosody  treat?     What  is  a  verse?     How  many  kinds? 
What  constitutes  rhyme?     What  is  blank  verse? 


190  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

422.  A.  foot  is  two  or  more  syllables,  combined 
according  to  accent. 

423.  The  principal  feet,  in  English,  are  the 
iambus,  the  trochee,  the  anapaest,  and  the 
dactyl. 

424.  The  iambus  consists  of  a  short  and  a 
long  syllable. 

Ex. — Invite,  devote,  benign. 

425.  The  trochee  consists  of  a  long  and  a 
short  syllable. 

Ex. —  Grate/til,  grievous. 

426.  The  anapaest  consists  of  two  short  syl- 
lables and  one  long  one. 

Ex. — Incomplete,  condescend. 

427.  The  dactyl  consists  of  one  long  syllable 
and  two  short  ones. 

Ex. — Positive,  loneliness. 

428.  Scanning  consists  in  dividing  a  verse 
into  the  feet  which  compose  it. 

429.  Examples  and  Exercises* 

IAMBIC   VERSE. 

1.  lambio  of  one  foot : — 

Thgy  go 
To  sow. 

What  is  a  foot  ?  What  are  the  principal  feet  in  English  ?  Of  what 
does  the  iambus  consist?  The  trochee?  The  anapaest?  The  dactyl? 
What  is  meant  by  scanning? 


LESSON   EIGHTY-SIXTH.  191 

2.  Iambic  of  two  feet : — 

To  me  |  thg  rose 
No  longer  glows. 

3.  Iambic  of  three  feet : — 

N6  roy-  |  £1  pomp  |  adorns 
This  King  of  righteousness. 

4.  Iambic  of  four  feet : — 

And  cold-  |  £r  still  |  thg  winds  |  did  blow, 
And  darker  hours  of  night  came  on. 

5.  Iambic  of  five  feet,  or  pentameter : — 

On  rift-  |  £d  rocks,  |  th&  drag-  |  tin's  late  |  abodes, 
The  green  reed  trembles  and  the  bulrush  nods. 

6.  Iambic  of  six  feet,  or  hexameter : 

His  heart  |  is  sad,  |  his  hope  |  is  gone,  |  his  light  |  is 

passed ; 
He  sits  and  mourns  in  silent  grief  the  lingering  day. 

7.  Iambic  of  seven  feet,  or  heptameter: — 

Th£  lof-  |  ty  hill,  |  thS  hum-  |  big  lawn,  |  with  count-  |  less 

beau  |  tie's  shine 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade,  proclaim  thy  power 

divine. 

LESSON  LXXXVI. 

430.  Iambic  of  five  feet  is  called  heroic  verse; 
that  of  six  feet  is  called  Alexandrine. 

431.  Iambic  of  seven  feet  is  commonly  divided 
into  two  lines, — the  first  containing  four  feet,  the 

What  is  iambic  of  five  feet  called  ?     Of  six  feet. 


192  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

second  three.     This  is  called  common  metre ; 

as, 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn, 
With  countless  beauties  shine ; 

The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade, 
Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

432.  In   long   metre,    each   line   has   four 
iambic  feet ;  in  short  metre,  the  first,  second, 
and  fourth  lines  contain  three  iambic  feet,  the 
third  four. 

433.  Each  species  of  iambic  verse  may  have 
one  additional  short  syllable. 

434.  Examples  and  Exercise. 

Upon  |  £  mdun  |  tain. 

TROCHAIC   VERSE. 

1.  Trochaic  of  one  foot : — 

Changing. 
Ranging. 

2.  Trochaic  of  two  feet : — 

Fancy  |  viewing, 
Joys  ensuing. 

3.  Trochaic  of  three  feet : — 

Go  wh8re  |  glory  |  waits  thee ; 
But  when  fame  elates  thee. 

4.  Trochaic  of  four  feet: — 

Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dlf-  |  fusing, 
Love  of  peace  and  lonely  musing. 

Explain  common  metre,  lone;  metre,  and  short  metre. 


LESSON   EIGHTY-SEVENTH,  193 

6,   Trochaic  of  five  feet : — 

All  that  |  walk  on  |  foot  fir  |  ride  In  |  charifits, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.   Trochaic  of  six  feet : — 

On  a"  |  mountain  |  stretched,  b£-  |  Death  £  \  hoary  |  willfiw, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow* 


LESSON  LXXXVIL 

435.  In  trochaic  verse,  the  accent  is  placed 
upon  the  odd  syllables ;  iii  iambic,  on  the  even. 

436.  Trochaic  verse  may  take  an  additional 
long  syllable, 

437.  Examples  and  Exercise. 

Idle  |  after  |  dinner,  |  in  his  |  chair, 
Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair, 

ANAPAESTIC    VERSE, 

1.  Anapcestic  of  one  fool : — 

Btit  In  vain 
They  complain. 

2.  Anapcestic  of  two  feet : — 

WhSre  the  sun  |  Iflves  t6  pause 
With  so  fond  a  delay. 


Where  is  the  accent  placed  in  trochaic  verse  ? 
13 


194  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

3.  Anapcestic  of  three  feet : — 

Fr5m  th£  cen-  |  trg  all  round  |  t$  th$  sea 
I'm  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 

4.  Anapcestic  of  four  feet: — 

At  thg  close  |  5f  thg  day,  |  when  thg  ham-  |  1st  is  still, 
And  mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulness  prove. 

LESSON  LXXXVIII. 

438.  In  anapaestic  verse,  the  accent  falls  on 
every  third  syllable.  The  first  foot  of  an  anar 
paestic  verse  may  be  an  iambus. 

439.  Examples  and  Exercise. 

And  mor-  |  tals  th£  sweets  |  of  forget-  |  fulness  prove. 

DACTYLIC   VERSE, 

1.  Dactylic  of  one  foot : — 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

2.  Dactylic  of  two  feet : — 

Free  frtfm  £nx-  |  I8ty, 
Care  and  satiety. 

3.  Dactylic  of  three  feet : — 

Wearing  a-  |  way  in  his  |  youthf&lnSss, 
Loveliness,  beauty,  and  truthfulness. 

4.  Dactylic  of  four  feet ; — 

Boys  will  an-  |  ticipate,  |  lavish,  and  |  dissipate 
All  that  your  busy  pate  hoarded  with  care. 


Where  does  the  accent  fall  in  anapeestic  verse  ? 


LESSON    EIGHTY-NINTH.  195 

Few  poems  are  perfectly  regular  in  their  feet.     The  different  kinds  of 
feet  are  often  mingled  in  the  same  verse.     Thus : — 

I  come,  I  I  come ;  |  y£  hiive  called  |  m£  long ; 

I  come  |  6'er  th#  moun-  |  tains,  with  light  |  &nd  song. 

NOTE. — For  exercises  in  scanning,  let  the  pupil  apply  these  rules  to 
different  verses  in  his  reading  lessons. 


PUNCTUATION. 


LESSON  LXXXIX. 

440.  Punctuation   is   the   art  of  dividing 
written  composition  by  means  of  points. 

441.  The  principal  points  are  the  comma  (,), 
the   semicolon  (;),  the  colon  (:),  the   dash 
( — ),  the  parenthesis  (),  the  period  (.),  the 
interrogation  point  (?).   the  exclamation 
point  (!). 

442.  A  point  should  not  be  used  when  two 
parts  are  simple,  arranged  in  their  natural  order, 
and  are  closely  connected. 

443.  A  point  should  be  used  at  the  end  of  every 
sentence, — to  separate  the  members  of  a  loose  sen- 
tence,— to  separate  the  elements  of  a  sentence 
when   they   form   a   series   of   more   than   two 
terms, — when    loosely    connected,    when    trans- 

What  is  punctuation  ?     Name  the  principal  points.     When  should  a 
point  not  be  used  ?     When  should  a  point  be  used  ? 


196  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

posed,  when  greatly  extended,  when  a  word  is 
omitted,  or  when  the  meaning  would  be  other* 
wise  obscure. 

The  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  dash,  and  parenthesis  are  used  to  sepa- 
rate the  parts  of  a  sentence ;  the  period,  interrogation  point,  and  excla- 
mation point  are  used  to  separate  entire  sentences. 


THE   COMMA. 

444.  The  comma  is  used  principally  in  separ 
rating  the  elements  of  simple  or  complex  sen- 
tences. 

445.  The  comma  should  be  used  according  to 
the  following  rules  : — 

RULE  1. — All  the  terms  of  a  coordinate  series, 
except  the  final  one,  should  be  separated  by  the 
comma. 

A  coordinate  series  consists  of  more  than  two  terms. 

Ex. — Peaches,  pears  and  grapes  are  excellent  fruit. 

RULE  II.  —  The  terms  of  a  coordinate 
couplet  should  be  separated — 

A  couplet  means  two  terms. 

1.  When  the  conjunction  is  omitted. 

2.  When  the  terms  are  identical  or  equivalent. 

3.  When  the  terms  are  contrasted  or  emphati- 
cally distinguished. 

4.  When  either  is  limited  by  an  element  not 
applicable  to  the  other. 

When  i«  the  comma  used  ?     Give  Rule  I.     Rule  II. 


LESSON    EIGHTY-NINTH.  197 

5.  When  one  or  both  are  so  limited  as  to  be 
considerably  extended. 

Ex. — 1.  The  sweetest,  wildest  land  on  earth.  2.  Verily, 
verily,  I  say  unto  you.  We  sailed  into  an  inlet,  or  harbor. 
3.  Tis  certain  he  can  write,  and  cipher  too.  The  fellow  was 
wicked,  not  weak.  4.  Undue  susceptibility,  and  the  prepon- 
derance of  mere  feeling  over  thoughtfulness,  may  mislead. 
5.  Integrity  of  understanding,  and  nicety  of  discernment, 
were  not  allotted  in  a  less  proportion  to  Dry  den  than  to  Pope. 

RULE  III. — A  subordinate  element  should 
be  separated  from  its  principal — 

1.  When  an  adjective  clause  or  expres- 
sion is  used  to  explain  and  not  to  restrict  the 
meaning  of  the  principal. 

Ex. — We  venerate  the  name  of  Washington,  who  was 
styled  the  father  of  his  country.  Moses,  the  servant  of  the 
Lord,  died  there  in  the  land  of  Moab.  Passion  is  like  a 
whirlwind,  prostrating  indiscriminately  whatever  comes  in 
its  way. 

2.  When  an  objective  clause  or  expres- 
sion   is   transposed,  or   separated   by  an  inter- 
vening expression. 

Ex. — The  impending  storm  which  threatened  us,  we  all 
escaped.  For  all  that,  said  the  pendulum,  it  is  very  dark 
here. 

3.  When  an  adverbial  clause  or  expres- 
sion is  transposed,  loosely  connected,  parenthetic, 
or  independent. 

Ex. —  On  the  contrary,  the  truth  lies  here.  Again,  the 
question  must  be  viewed  practically.  In  fine,  the  result 

Give  Rule  III. 


198  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

proves  the  truth  of  the  proposition.  It  will  appear,  with- 
out doubt,  that  his  intentions  were  honest.  To  confess  the 
truth,  I  had  thought  but  little  of  the  matter. 

KULE    IV. — The   two  principal    elements 

are  separated  by  the  comma — 

1.  When  the  subject  nominative  is  a  long 
clause,  or  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  so  modified  as 
to  give  an  extended  complex  subject,  or  when 
the  modified  subject  ends  with  a  verb  or  any 
word  which  would  make  the  meaning  doubtful 
without  a  point. 

Ex. — That  two  little  wires  stretched  from  city  to  city 
should  be  the  means  of  throwing  the  whole  nation  instantly 
into  commotion,  is  truly  marvellous.  He  that  places  him- 
self neither  higher  nor  lower  than  he  ought  to  do,  exercises 
the  truest  humility. 

RULE  V. — Independent  and  parenthetical 

expressions  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  a  comma. 

Ex. —  Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome  him.  Yet  once  more, 
0  ye  laurels.  Thou  knowest,  come  what  may,  that  the  light 
of  truth  cannot  be  put  out. 

446.  Exercise. 

Punctuate  the  following  examples : — 
Go  where  a  man  may  home  is  the  centre  to  which  the 
heart  turns. 

Here  comes  his  body  mourned  by  Mark  Antony. 
Nature  through  all  her  works  delights  in  variety. 
He  being  dead  yet  speaketh. 

Give  Rule  IV.     Rule  V. 


LESSON    EIGHTY-NINTH.  199 

I  thauk  thee  Roderick  for  the  word. 
Accordingly  the  chronicles  of  the  middle  ages  teem  with 
crime. 

His  story  is  in  short  the  tale  of  an  impostor. 
At  the  base  of  the  mountain  we  dismounted  from  our 
horses. 

All  nature  is  but  art  unknown  to  thee 

All  chance  direction  which  thou  canst  not  see. 

We  visited  Abbotsford,  the  home  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

An  indiscriminate  reading  of  novels  and  romances  is 
exceedingly  injurious  to  the  young. 

In  the  contemplation  of  these  august  teachers  of  man- 
kind  we  are  filled  with  conflicting  emotions. 

That  a  peculiar  state  of  the  mere  particles  of  the  brain 
should  be  followed  by  a  change  of  the  state  of  the  sentient 
mind  is  truly  wonderful. 

The  ancients  separated  the  corn  from  the  ear  by  caus- 
ing an  ox  to  trample  on  the  sheaves. 

General  Washington  the  first  President  of  the  United 
States  was  a  true  patriot  a  genuine  lover  of  his  country. 

The  more  highly  we  cultivate  our  minds  here  the  better 
shall  we  be  prepared  for  the  nobler  pursuits  of  the  next 
stages  of  our  existence. 

See  through  this  air  this  ocean  and  this  earth 
All  matter  quick  and  bursting  into  birth. 

Speak  as  you  mean  do  as  you  profess  and  perform  what 
you  promise. 

You  are  a  parent  or  a  child  a  brother  or  a  sister  a  hus- 
band or  a  wife  a  friend  or  an  associate  of  some  kindred 
soul. 

Has  God  provided  for  the  poor  a  coarser  earth  a  thinner 
air  a  paler  sky  ? 

Industry  honesty  and  temperance  are  essential  to  hap- 
piness. 


200  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

Lend  lend  your  wings. 

Woe  woe  to  the  rider  that  tramples  them  down. 
It  is  a  star  or  some  distant  light. 

The  storms  of  many  winters  and  the  scorching  heats 
of  many  summers  have  visited  that  ruin. 

Contrasted  faults  through  all  their  manners  reign, 
Though  poor  luxurious  ;  though  submissive  vain ; 
Though  grave  yet  trifling ;  zealous  yet  untrue ; 
And  even  in  penance  planning  sins  anew. 

THE    COLON   AND    SEMICOLON. 

447.  The  colon  and  semicolon  are  used 
chiefly  to  separate  the  members  of  a  loose  sentence. 

Ex. — Make  a  proper  use  of  your  time ;  for  the  loss  of  it 
can  never  be  regained. 

HEM.  1. — The  colon  is  now  but  little  used,  except  before  examples  fol- 
lowing the  expressions  as  follows,  the  following  examples,  in  these  words; 
as,  "Perform  the  following  exercises:" 

REM.  2. — When,  in  a  complex  sentence,  several  subordinate  clauses 
are  united  to  each  other,  having  a  common  dependence  upon  the  principal 
clause,  they  are  separated  by  the  semicolon ;  as,  "Philosophers  assert  that 
Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations  ;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  trea- 
sures in  reserve;  that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive;  and  that 
future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries." 

448.  Exercise. 

Insert  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  and  the  colon  where 
they  are  required  in  the  following  examples : 

Never  value  yourself  upon  your  fortune  for  this  is  the 
sign  of  a  weak  mind. 

Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of  Dry  den  but  Dryden 
certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope. 

What  is  said  of  the  colon  and  semicolon  ?    Give  Remark  I.    Remark  II. 


LE880N    EIGHTY-NINTH.  201 

The  great  tendency  and  purpose  of  poetry  is  to  carry 
the  mind  above  and  beyond  the  beaten  dusty  weary  walks 
of  ordinary  life  to  lift  it  into  a  purer  element  and  to  breathe 
into  it  more  profound  and  generous  emotion. 

Write  on  your  slate  the  following  example  Mary  and 
John  will  go. 

The  great,  the  wise  and  the  good  were  there. 

Endeavor  to  excel  much  may  be  accomplished  by  per- 
severance. 

THE    DASH   AND    PARENTHESIS. 

449.  The  dash  is  used  where  there  is  a  signi- 
ficant pause,  an  unexpected  transition  in  the  sen- 
tence, or  where  a  sentence  is  left  unfinished. 

Ex. — He  sometimes  counsel  takes,  and  sometimes — 
snuff;  But  I  must  first . 

REM. — The  dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  parenthesis  j 
as,  "  The  colonists — such  is  human  nature — desired  to  burn  the  town  in 
which  they  had  been  so  wretched." 

450.  The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  a 
part  of  a  sentence  not  necessary  to  the  construc- 
tion, but  in  some  way  explanatory  of  the  meaning 
of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — Consider  (and  may  the  consideration  sink  deep 
into  your  hearts !)  the  fatal  consequences  of  a  wicked  life. 

451.  Exercise. 

Insert  the  dash  and  the  parenthesis  where  they  are  re- 
quired in  the  following  examples  : — 

Horror  burst   the  bands   of  sleep ;    but   my  feelings 

What  is  said  of  the  dash  and  parenthesis  ? 


202 

words  are  too  weak,  too  powerless  to  express  them.  The 
Egyptian  style  of  architecture  see  Dr.  Pocock,  not  his 
discourses  but  his  prints  was  apparently  the  mother  of  the 
Greek.  While  they  wished  to  please,  and  why  should  they 
not  wish  it,  they  disdained  dishonorable  means.  If  thou 
art  he,  so  much  respected  once  but,  O,  how  fallen  how 
degraded 

THE    PERIOD. 

452.  The  period  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  de- 
clarative or  an  imperative  sentence.  It  is  also 
used  to  denote  an  abbreviation. 

EXAMPLES. 

Knowledge  is  not  only  pleasant,  but  useful  and  honor- 
able. / 

Let  what  you  have  gained  be  an  impulse  to  something 
higher. 

If  you  will,  you  can  rise.  The  age  of  MSS.  is,  in  some 
instances,  known  by  dates  inserted  in  them. 

453.  Exercise. 

Insert  the  period  where  it  is  required  in  the  following 
examples : — 

Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue 

It  is  the  voice  of  reason  Let  its  precepts  be  religiously 
obeyed  Never  transgress  its  limits  Abhor  a  falsehood 

I  would  say  to  the  people,  You  cannot,  without  guilt 
and  disgrace,  stop  where  you  are 

The  oration  was  delivered  by  J  L  Thompson,  Esq 

The  event  occurred  B  C  1001 

What  is  said  of  the  period? 


LESSON  EIGHTY-NINTH.  203 

To  R  H  Dana,  Jun  Esq ,  the  well-known  author  of 
"  Two  Years  before  the  Mast,"  the  community  are  greatly 
indebted 

But  the  seasons  are  not  alike  in  all  countries  of  the 
same  region,  for  the  reasons  already  given  See  Chap  VI 
§  2, 1  4,  p  330 


INTERROGATION    POINT. 

454.  An  interrogation  point  is  used  at  the 
close  of  an  interrogative  sentence. 
Ex. — Who  comes  there? 

REM. — When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  used  as  a  subordinate 
clause, — 

(1.)  The  interrogation  point  is  employed  when  the  clause  is  quoted 
directly. 

Ex. — He  said,  Why  do  you  weep  ? 

(2.)  The  interrogation  point  is  not  employed  where  the  clause  is 
quoted  indirectly. 

Ex. — He  asked  me  why  I  wept. 


EXCLAMATION   POINT. 

455.  A  exclamation  point  is  used  at  the 
close  of  an  exclamatory  sentence. 
Ex. — How  unsearchable  are  his  ways! 

REM. — An  exclamation  point  is  often  used  within  a  sentence,  after  an 
exclamatory  expression  or  an  interjection. 

Ex. — 0  Jove  Supreme!  whom  men  and  gods  revere!  0!  let  soft 
pity  touch  the  mind ! 

How  is  the  interrogation  point  used?  The  exclamation  point  ?  What 
remark  ? 


204  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

456.  Exercises. 

Insert  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  where  they 
are  required  in  the  following  examples  : — 

Daughter  of  Faith  awake  arise  illume  the  dread  un- 
known the  chaos  of  the  tomb 

Whither  shall  I  turn  Wretch  that  I  am  To  what 
place  shall  I  betake  myself 

O  Pascal  thou  wert  pure  in  heart  in  this  world,  and 
now  thou  art  in  full  sight  of  God 

Apostles  of  liberty  what  millions  attest  the  authenticity 
of  your  mission 

To  purchase  heaven  has  gold  the  power 

Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ 

Punctuate  correctly  in  all  respects  the  following  exam- 
ples : — 

What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  How  noble  in  reason 
how  infinite  in  faculties  in  form  and  moving  how  express 
and  admirable  in  action  how  like  an  angel  in  apprehen- 
sion how  like  a  God 

Dr  H  Marsh  F  E  S  &c  Bishop  of  Peterborough  b  1757 
d  1839. 

As  the  pupil  is  often  obliged  to  bend  all  his  faculties 
to  the  task  before  him  and  tears  sometimes  fall  on  the 
page  he  is  studying  so  it  is  in  the  school  of  God's  provi- 
dence there  are  hard  lessons  in  it 

OTHER   MARKS    USED    IN   WRITING. 

457.  Brackets  ([])  are  used  when  a  word 
or  phrase  is  introduced  for  explanation  or  con- 
nection. 

Ex. — He  [the  teacher]  thus  explained  the  difficulty. 

How  are  brackets  used  ? 


LESSON    EIGHTY-NINTH.  205 

458.  The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  to  denote 
either  the  possessive  case,  or  the  omission  of  a 
letter. 

Ex. — John's;  o'er. 

459.  The  quotation  marks  ("")  are  used 
to  include  a  passage  taken  verbatim  from  some 
other  author. 

Ex. — He  said,  "  I  relinquish  my  claim." 

460.  The  asterisk  (*),  the  obelisk  (f),  the 
double  dagger  (J),  and  the  parallels  (||)  are 
used  to  refer  to  notes  in  the  margin  or  at  the 
bottom  of  the  page.     Sometimes   the   section 
(§)  and  the  paragraph  (][)   are  used.     Also, 
small  letters,  or  figures,  which  refer  to  notes  at 
the  foot  of  the  page. 

461.  The  caret  (A)  is  used  in  writing  to  show 
that  some  letter,  word,  or  phrase  has  been  omitted. 

Ex. — The  pencil  lies  °!  the  table. 

462.  The  hyplien  (-)'is  used  to  separate  the 
parts  of  a  compound  word. 

Ex. — Book-binder. 

When  placed  at  the  end  of  a  line,  it  shows 
that  a  word  is  divided,  the  remaining  part  being 
carried  to  the  next  line. 

463.  The  ellipsis  (***)    ( )  is  used  to 

denote  the  omission  of  certain  letters  or  words. 

Ex.— C***ll;  K g. 

How  is  the  apostrophe  used?  Quotation  marks?  Asterisk?  Obelisk, 
&Q.  ?  Caret?  Hyphen?  Ellipsis? 


206  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

464.  The  brace  I connects  a  number  of  words 

I  with  one  common  term. 

465.  The  index  ($88^)  points  to  some  re- 
markable passage. 

466.  The  section  (§)  denotes  the  divisions 
of  a  treatise. 

467.  The  paragraph  (^[)  denotes  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  subject. 

468.  The  vowel  marks  are  the  diaeresis  ("), 
placed  over  the  second  of  two  vowels  which  are 
separated;  the  long  sound  ("),  placed  over  a  long 
vowel;  the  breve  or  short  sound   (~),  placed 
over   a   short   vowel;    and    accents,  grave  (v), 
acute  ('),  and  circumflex  (A). 

REM. — The  best  practical  exercises  on  all  these  marks  and  points  will 
be  given  by  the  teacher.  Let  the  pupil  be  required  to  construct  sen- 
tences involving  the  use  of  them ;  or  let  the  teacher  read,  from  some 
book,  any  passage  which  demands  their  use,  and  let  the  class  insert  them 
in  their  proper  places. 

469.  Rules  for  the  Use  of  Capital  Letters. 

1.  The   first  word  of  every  entire    sentence 
should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — Jesus  wept. 

2.  Titles   of   honor   and   respect,  and  every 
proper  name,  and  every  adjective  derived  from 
a  proper  name,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — His  Highness ;  Boston  ;  Bostonian. 

How  is  the  brace  used  ?  Index  ?  Section  ?  Paragraph  ?  What  are 
the  vowel  marks?  Give  the  rules  for  the  use  of  capital  letters. 


LESSON   EIGHTY-NINTH.  207 

3.  Every  appellation   of    the    Deity   should 
begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — God ;  Jehovah ;  the  Eternal. 

4.  The  first  word  of  every  line   of  poetry 
should  begin  with  a  capital. 

5.  The  words  "I"  and   "0"  should  always 
be  capitals. 

6.  Any  important  word   may  begin  with   a 
capital. 

7.  The  principal  words  in  the  title  of  books 
should  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex. — Pope's  Essay  on  Man. 

8.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  when 
the  quotation  forms  a  complete  sentence  of  itself, 
should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — He  saith  unto  him,  Feed  my  sheep. 


APPENDIX. 


LEST  the  inexperienced  teacher  should  suppose  that  the 
merit  of  these  exercises  is  dependent  upon  the  particular 
form  of  giving  them,  it  should  be  said,  once  for  all,  that  it 
is  the  spirit,  rather  than  the  mere  method,  which  gives  value 
to  the  lesson.  The  chief  object  is  secured  when  the  children 
are  led  to  realize  the  distinction  to  be  made,  from  primitive 
sources,  namely,  the  examples  and  specimens  which  contain 
it.  The  teacher  guides  their  observations,  and  by  well-di- 
rected questions  leads  to  the  desired  conclusion.  The  three 
full  methods  below,  for  Lessons  I.,  XIV.,  and  XXVIII., 
have  been  furnished  by  one  of  the  most  successful  teachers 
in  one  of  our  best  normal  schools. 

METHOD  FOR  TEACHING  LESSON  I. 

The  teacher  comes  before  the  class  having  many  objects  at  hand,  but 
concealed  from  the  children, — as  an  apple,  a  knife,  a  bell,  a  rose,  some 
sugar,  Ac.  Ac. 

TEACHER  shows  an  apple  to  the  class,  and  asks,  What  is 
this? 

CHILDREN. — An  apple. 

TEACHER  (to  one  child). — Mary,  how  do  you  know  this 
is  an  apple? 

CHILD. — I  can  see  it. 

The  teacher  calls  upon  other  children  to  tell  how  they  know  it  is  an 
apple.  After  the  children  have  stated,  the  teacher  proceeds  and  pursues 
the  same  plan  in  regard  to  other  objects. 

TEACHER  then  tells  several  children  to  close  their  eyes, 
and,  handing  one  of  them  a  knife,  says,  What  have  you  ? 

14  209 


210  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

CHILD. — A  knife. 

The  teacher  then  has  each  child,  with  closed  eyes,  take  the  knife  and 
state  what  he  has, — the  children  with  eyes  open  deciding  that  they  are 
right. 

TEACHER  then  asks  the  first  child  who  said  it  was  a 
knife,  How  did  you  know  that  was  a  knife  that  you  held 
in  your  hand  ? 

CHILD. — I  could  feel  that  it  was  a  knife. 

The  teacher  has  the  other  children  who  held  the  knife  state  similarly, 
and  then  pursues  the  same  plan  with  several  other  objects. 

TEACHER  requests  all  the  children  to  close  their  eyes, 
and  then  rings  a  bell,  and,  naming  one  child,  says  to  him, 
What  have  I  now  ? 

CHILD. — A  bell. 

TEACHER. — What  makes  you  think  it  is  a  bell  ? 

CHILD. — I  can  hear  it. 

Other  children  state  that  the  teacher  has  a  bell. 

The  children  then  open  their  eyes,  and  decide  by  seeing,  feeling,  and 
hearing  it  that  it  is  a  bell.  A  similar  plan  is  pursued  with  other  objects. 

TEACHER  has  the  children  close  their  eyes  again,  and, 
holding  a  fragrant  rose  under  the  nose  of  one  of  them, 
says,  What  have  I  now  ? 

CHILD. — A  rose. 

Teacher  has  other  children  answer  same  question  by  a  similar  test, 
then  has  children  open  their  eyes  and  decide  by  seeing  it  that  it  is  a  rose. 

TEACHER  asks  one  of  the  children  that  stated  it  was  a 
rose,  How  did  you  know  that  was  a  rose,  when  your  eyes 
were  closed  ? 

CHILD. — I  could  smell  it 

Other  children  give  same  reason. 

The  teacher  pursues  a  similar  plan  with  other  objects. 
The  children  again  close  their  eyes,  the  teacher  puts  a  little 
sugar  on  the  tongue  of  several  of  them,  and  asks,  What 
have  you  in  your  mouth  ? 

CHILDREN. — Sugar. 


APPENDIX.  211 

/ 

The  children  open  their  eyes,  and  decide  by  seeing,  smelling,  feeling, 
and  tasting  that  it  is  sugar. 

TEACHER  (to  one  of  the  children  that  said  it  was  sugar, 
when  their  eyes  were  closed). — What  made  you  think  that 
was  sugar,  when  your  eyes  were  closed  ? 

CHILD. — I  could  taste  it. 

Other  children  state  similarly. 

The  teacher  pursues  a  similar  plan  with  other  objects. 

TEACHER,  pointing  to  the  objects  lying  on  the  table, 
says,  What  are  these  ? 

CHILDREN. — Kose,  sugar,  knife,  &c.  &c. 

TEACHER. — Yes ;  but,  without  naming  each,  what  can 
you  call  all  of  them  ? 

CHILDREN. — Things. 

TEACHER. — What  have  yMi  found  you  can  do  with  these 
things? 

CHILDREN. — We  can  see  them,  or  Jeel  them ;  some  of 
them  we  can  hear,  some  we  can  smell,  and  some  we  can 
taste. 

TEACHER. — Then  these  things  are  things  that  we  can — 

CHILDREN. — Things  that  we  can  see,  feel,  hear,  smell, 
or  taste. 

The  children  recite  this  statement  simultaneously. 

TEACHER. — Who  knows  a  name  for  these  things  that 
we  can  see,  feel,  hear,  taste,  or  smell  ? 

If  children  cannot  tell,  the  teacher  tells  them  we  call  them  otjects. 
Children  repeat  the  word. 

TEACHER. — What  are  objects? 

CHILDREN. — Those  things  which  we  can  see,  feel,  hear, 
smell,  or  taste  are  called  objects. 

The  teacher  has  different  children  recite  this  statement  individually, 
and  then  the  class  recite  it. 

The  teacher  then  writes  the  statement  upon  the  board  as  the  children 
spell  the  more  difficult  words. 

The  teacher  then  questions  the  children  upon  the  statement;  after 
which  it  is  erased. 


212 

The  children  are  then  required  to  tell  what  objects  are,  to  name  various 
objects,  and  tell  why  they  call  them  objects,  and  also  tell  whether  they 
can  see,  hear,  feel,  smell,  or  taste  them. 

The  teacher  then  names  objects,  and  the  children  tell  whether  they  can 
see,  hear,  feel,  smell,  or  taste  them.  Also,  the  children  are  required  to 
name  objects  which  they  can  see,  some  which  they  can  hear,  some  which 
they  can  feel,  smell,  or  taste.  After  this,  assign  Lesson  I.,  p.  8. 

LESSON  II. 

The  methods  of  appeal  to  a  child's  mental  experience  are 
simple.  Call  up  any  occurrence  familiar  to  both  teacher 
and  pupil,  as  a  walk  in  the  city,  a  visit  to  a  steamer,  to  a 
museum,  &c.,  or  a  stroll  in  the  fields,  a  skating  scene,  or 
any  other  actual  event  fresh  in  the  memory  of  the  child, 
and  draw  from  him  the  acknowledgment  that  now  the  whole 
scene  seems  to  be  present  in  his  mind.  Then  apply  test- 
questions  upon  the  various  objects  in  the  scene.  This  is 
the  counterpart  to  Lesson  I.  In  that  we  have  objects  pre- 
sent to  the  senses;  here  we  have  views  or  mental  pictures 
of  objects  present  to  the  mind. 

LESSON  III. 

In  this  lesson,  the  teacher  at  first  employs,  in  contrast, 
the  actual  object  as  now  seen,  and  the  mental  picture  of  it, 
or  what  seems  to  be  seen  when  the  object  is  put  out  of  sight. 
He  then  leads  the  children  to  bring  before  the  mind's  eye 
objects  at  a  distance,  which  were  once  seen,  but  now  seem  to 
be  seen.  Finally,  he  draws  from  them,  or  tells  them,  that 
what  we  thus  seem  to  see  are  called  ideas.  To  cultivate  the 
habit  of  correctness  and  accuracy,  he  will  subject  their  ideas 
to  various  tests,  as  to  the  form,  color,  measure,  situation,  &c. 
of  the  real  objects. 

LESSON  IV. 

To  remind  others  of  an  object  which  we  see,  we  may  point 
to  it ;  but  to  remind  them  of  one  which  we  think  of  but 


APPENDIX.  213 

do  not  see,  we  must  use  a  sign.  Lead  the  class  to  con- 
clude that  a  word,  as  a  sign,  expresses  or  points  out  an  idea 
to  others. 

LESSON  V. 

Our  ideas  do  not  stand  alone;  they  come  in  groups.  We 
cannot  think  of  snow  without  thinking  of  it  as  white,  cold, 
&c.  Let  the  pupil  see  that  he  thinks  of  a  living  thing — a 
bird,  for  example — as  doing  something.  He  thinks  of  the 
two  together,  and  in  telling  what  he  thinks  he  says  something 
of  the  bird  or  object  he  thinks  of.  Draw  from  him  this 
conclusion. 

LESSON  VI. 

The  pupil's  attention  is  here  directed  to  the  group  of  words 
which  expresses  his  thought.  Let  him,  by  examples,  con- 
trast this  kind  of  group  with  another,  in  which  nothing  is 
said  or  affirmed,  until  he  is  prepared  to  be  told  that  the 
words  which  tell  or  express  a  thought  form  a  sentence. 

LESSON  VII. 

The  pupil  will  readily  see,  by  examples,  that  he  may 
not  only  think,  but  say,  several  things  of  one  object,  or 
one  thing  of  several  objects. 

LESSON  VIII. 

Let  the  pupil  see  that  when  he  speaks  of  this  or  that 
individual  object  he  must  give  it  an  individual  name,  or 
a  descriptive  name  that  will  represent  it  as  an  individual. 
Thus,  to  utter  the  word  book  would  give  to  the  child  no  idea 
of  an  individual  or  particular  book.  But  "that  brown  book 
on  William's  desk"  would  point  out  the  individual  book 
meant.  Examples  should  be  multiplied  till  the  case  is 
made  clear. 

LESSON  IX. 

This  lesson  calk  attention  to  the  office  of  the  words  em- 


214  GREENE'S   INTRODUCTION. 

ployed  in  Lesson  VIII., — one  as  principal,  and  the  others 
clustering  around  it  to  limit  its  application.  Let  the  pupils 
derive  the  conclusion  from  illustrations  and  examples. 

LESSON  X. 

This  lesson  requires  the  pupil  to  think  of  the  meaning 
of  a  sentence  as  a  whole.  Examples  will  enable  him  to 
distinguish  the  classes. 

LESSON  XL 

The  important  work  of  writing  sentences  has  already 
commenced,  or  is  now  to  be  taken  up  with  the  purpose  of 
making  it  a  practical  means  of  expressing  thoughts.  The 
teacher  will  introduce  other  rules  and  cautions  in  addition 
to  those  in  the  lesson.  Let  these  be  thoroughly  learned 
and  always  put  to  practice. 

LESSONS  XII.  AND  XIII. 

Can  be  easily  illustrated  and  explained.  They  are  the  first 
practical  separations  of  a  sentence  into  its  parts.  These  are 
(not  in  the  technical  sense)  parts  of  speech.  The  teacher 
may  combine  with  this  the  further  separation  of  these  two 
parts  into  principal  and  limiting,  as  in  Lesson  IX.  But  in 
this  case  no  attention  is  to  be  paid  to  the  words  as  parts  of 
speech,  but  only  as  used  to  represent  the  subject  or  the  pre- 
dicatey  or  to  show  in  what  sense  these  are  limited. 

LESSONS  XIV.— XXVII. 

Open  to  the  pupil  the  idea  of  classifying  words,  and  of  point- 
ing out  their  uses  in  the  sentence.  In  fact,  the  classification 
depends  partly  upon  the  meaning  and  partly  upon  the  use 
of  words.  The  Model  for  XIV.,  with  some  variations,  will 
serve  as  a  hint  for  all  the  rest.  The  main  point  is  to  show 
the  basis  of  the  classification,  and  to  make  a  clear  distinc- 
tion between  the  word  and  that  which  it  represents. 


APPENDIX.  215 

METHOD  FOR  LESSON  XIV. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  one  of  the  class). — Who  is  this  ? 
CHILDREN. — Mary. 

The  children  spell  the  word,  as  the  teacher  writes  it  upon  the  black- 
board. 

TEACHER  (holding  a  pencil  in  the  hand). — What  have  I? 
CHILDREN. — A  pencil. 

The  teacher  writes  as  the  children  spell. 

TEACHER  (touching  the  table). — What  is  this? 
CHILDREN. — The  table. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  teacher  obtains  and  writes  upon  the  board — 

the   children    spelling — chair,  rubber,   knife,   John,   look,  apple,  , 

, , ,  in  all  some  twenty  or  thirty  names. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  the  words  on  the  board). — What 
are  these  ? 

CHILDREN. —  Words. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  the  word  Mary). — What  is  this? 

CHILDREN. — The  word  Mary. 

TEACHER. — When  you  say  Mary,  whom  do  you  mean  ? 

CHILDREN. — That  girl  (pointing). 

TEACHER. — How  do  we  all  know  you  mean  her  ? 

CHILDREN. — Because  Mary  is  her  name. 

TEACHER. — What  have  you  learned  about  this  word  ? 

CHILDREN. — The  word  Mary  is  the  name  of  that  girl. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  the  word  pencil). — What  is  this? 

CHILDREN. — The  word  pencil. 

TEACHER. — What  do  you  mean  by  this  word? 

CHILDREN. — Th&t  pencil  (pointing  to  it). 

TEACHER  (laying  pencil  on  the  table,  so  as  to  use  this 
word  and  that  pencil). — This  word  pencil  is  what  of  that 
pencil  ? 

CHILDREN.-— The  name  of  the  pencil. 

Let  the  whole  class  make  this  decision,  and  give  it  both  individually 


216  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

and  simultaneously,  and  let  the  teacher  continue  the  same  plan  with  the 
other  words. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  the  list  of  words). — What  have 
you  found  of  these  ? 

CHILDREN. — They  are  words;  and  are  names  of  a  girl, 
a  pencil,  a  table,  a  chair,  &c. 

TEACHER. — What  have  you  already  learned  to  call  girls, 
pencils,  tables,  &c.  ? 

CHILDREN. — Obj  ects. 

TEACHER. — Then  you  can  say  these  words  are — what  ? 

CHILDREN. — They  are  names  of  objects. 

Let  each  pupil  make  this  decision. 

TEACHER. — Each  word  is — what  ? 

CHILDREN. — Each  word  is  the  name  of  an  object. 

Let  this  be  impressed  upon  the  class  by  individual  or  simultaneous 
recitation. 

TEACHER. — What  do  we  call  a  word  that  is  the  name 
of  an  object? 

CHILDREN  (hesitatingly). — An  object-word;  (perhaps 
some)  the  name  of  an  object. 

TEACHER. — Yes;  an  object-word,  or,  which  means  the 
same,  a  noun. 

The  children  repeat  the  word. 

TEACHER. — What  is  a  noun  ? 

CHILDREN. — The  name  of  an  object  is  a  noun.  See  29, 
Lesson  XIV. 

The  teacher,  erasing  all  from  the  board,  will  review  the  whole,  by  ask- 
ing for  the  meaning  of  noun,  name,  object;  also,  for  examples  of  nouns. 
Then,  turning  to  Lesson  XIV.,  and  giving  out  the  Exercise  (30),  let  2,  4, 
and  5  be  done  upon  the  slate. 

NOTE.— -It  will  be  understood  that  these  are  objects  to  the  tenses. 
Objects  of  thought  should  be  brought  forward  gradually. 


APPENDIX.  217 


METHOD  FOR  LESSON  XXVIII. 

The  teacher  requests  the  children  to  give  some  nouns. 

Children  pronounce  and  spell,  and  the  teacher  writes  upon  the  board, 
the  following  or  others,  about  twenty  or  thirty  in  all :  John,  stove,  Pro- 
vidence, pencil,  boy,  table,  city,  Sarah,  <fcc.  &c. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  the  words). — What  are  these? 

CHILDREN. — Words ;  nouns. 

TEACHER. — Why  are  they  nouns  ? 

CHILDREN. — Because  they  are  names  of  objects. 

TEACHER. — Then  each  word  is — what  ? 

CHILDREN. — Each  word  is  the  name  of  an  object. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  the  word  John). — This  word  is 
the  name  of  what  object? 

CHILD. — It  is  his  name  (pointing  to  the  boy  John). 

TEACHER. — Why  do  you  say  it  is  his  name  ? 

CHILD. — Because  that  name  belongs  to  him. 

TEACHER. — How  came  he  to  have  that  name  ?  (or,  How 
did  he  get  that  name  ?) 

CHILD. — It  was  given  to  him. 

TEACHER. — Instead  of  saying  it  was  given  to  him,  or  it 
belongs  to  him,  we  may  say  the  name  applies  to  him. 

The  children  repeat  the  word  applies. 

TEACHER. — What  have  you  learned  of  this  word  John  ? 
CHILD. — That  it  is  a  noun,  and  is  a  name  that  applies  to 
the  boy  John. 

Children  repeat  statement. 

The  teacher  pursues  the  same  plan  with  other  proper  nouns,  the  chil- 
dren stating  similar  conclusion  of  each. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  the  word  Providence). — What 
have  you  learned  of  this  ? 

CHILD. — That  it  is  a  noun,  and  is  the  name  that  applies 
to  the  city  of  Providence. 

TEACHER. — To  what  other  city  does  it  apply? 

CHILD. — To  no  other  city. 


218  GREENE'S  INTRODUCTION. 

TEACHER. — Instead  of  saying  the*  noun  Providence  ap- 
plies to  the  city  of  Providence,  and  to  no  other  city,  you 
can  say  it  applies  to  which  city? 

CHILD. — To  just  that  city  alone. 

"The  same  plan  should  be  pursued  with  other  proper  nouns,  the  children 
saying  that  the  noun  John  applies  to  just  one  "boy,  the  noun  Sarah  to  just 
one  girl,  &c.  &c. 

TEACHER. — What  are  cities,  boys,  girls,  &c.? 

CHILD. — Obj  ects. 

TEACHER. — Then  you  can  say  each  of  these  nouns  ap- 
plies to  what  ? 

CHILD. — To  just  one  object. 

TEACHER. — Instead  of  saying  just  one  object,  we  may 
say  an  individual  object. 

TEACHER. — What  may  we  say  ? 

CHILD. — An  individual  object. 

The  children  repeat  individual  object. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  proper  nouns). — What  have  you 
learned  of  these  words  ? 

CHILD. — Each  is  a  noun  which  applies  to  an  individual 
object. 

TEACHER. — What  kind  of  a  noun  do  we  call  such  a 
noun? 

If  children  do  not  know  (as  it  cannot  be  expected  they  will),  the 
teacher  tells  them  that  such  a  noun  is  a  proper  noun,  because  proper 
means  applying  to  an  individual  as  his  own. 

The  children  repeat  the  word  proper. 

TEACHER. — What  is  a  proper  noun  ? 
CHILD. — A  noun  which  is  applied  to  an  individual  object 
is  a  proper  noun. 

The  teacher  has  the  children  recite  this  definition  separately  and  to- 
gether. The  children  spell  the  more  difficult  words,  and  the  teacher  writes 
the  statement  on  the  board. 

TEACHER  (pointing  to  the  word  boy).— What  is  this  ? 
CHILD. — The  word  boy  is  a  noun. 


APPENDIX.  219 

TEACHER. — What  have  you  learned  of  this  noun  ? 

CHILD. — It  is  a  name  which  applies  to  an  object. 

TEACHER. — To  what  object  ? 

CHILD. — To  a  boy. 

TEACHER. — To  which  boy  ? 

CHILDREN. — To  any  boy ;  to  every  boy ;  to  each  boy. 

TEACHER. — To  each  boy  of  what?  (or,  of  how  many 
boys?) 

CHILD. — To  each  boy  of  all  the  boys. 

TEACHER. — What  may  you  call  the  boys  together  ? 

CHILD. — A  lot  of  boys.     A  crowd  of  boys,  &c. 

TEACHER. — -Yes ;  but  what  do  you  call  a  number  of 
them  together  in  school  ? 

CHILD. — A  class  of  boys. 

TEACHER. — Yes.  Then  what  can  we  call  all  the  boys 
together  ? 

CHILD. — A  class  of  boys. 

TEACHER. — What  have  you  learned  of  this  word  (boy)? 

CHILD. — That  it  is  a  noun,  and  may  apply  to  each  one 
of  the  whole  class  of  boys. 

The  teacher  pursues  the  same  plan  with  other  common  nouns,  the 
children  making  similar  statements  of  each  and  then  of  all. 

TEACHER. — What  are  boys,  stoves,  &c.  ? 

CHILD. — Objects. 

TEACHER. — Then  what  can  you  say,  instead  of  naming 
boys,  stoves,  &c.  ? 

CHILD. — Obj  ects. 

TEACHER. — What  have  you  learned,  then,  of  each  of 
these  (pointing  to  boy,  stove,  &c.)  ? 

CHILD. — Each  is  a  noun  that  may  apply  to  each  one  of 
a  class  of  objects. 

TEACHER. — What  can  you  say  instead  of  one,  here  ? 

CHILD. — Individual . 

TEACHER. — Yes.     Give  the  whole  statement. 


220  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

CHILD.  —  Each  is  a  noun  that  may  apply  to  each  indi- 
vidual of  a  class  of  objects. 

TEACHER.  —  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  such  a  noun  ? 

The  teacher  here  tells  the  children  what  it  means  for  several  persons 
to  have  any  thing  (as  a  name,  here)  in  common,  and  says,  Such  a  noun  is 
called  a  common  noun. 

The  children  repeat  the  word  common. 

TEACHER.  —  What  is  a  common  noun  ? 
CHILD.  —  A  noun  which  may  apply  to  each  individual  of  a 
class  of  objects  is  a  common  noun. 

The  children  recite  the  definition  individually  and  simultaneously,  and 
spell  the  more  difficult  words. 

The  teacher  writes  the  statement  on  the  board,  then  has  the  children 
read  both  statements  from  the  board,  and  asks  questions  upon  them. 

The  teacher  then  erases  them,  and  has  the  children  state  what  a  proper 
noun  is,  what  a  common  noun  is,  and  give  examples  of  each  kind,  stating 
why  in  each  case. 

The  teacher  also  gives  words,  requiring  the  children  to  select  the  nouns, 
and  tell  whether  they  are  common  or  proper,  and  why  in  each  case. 


E.  —  Observe  here  that  the  common  noun  is  developed  in  the  sin- 
gular number.  Let  the  children  see  that  if  it  applies  to  each  it  applies 
to  any  two  or  more  considered  together.  But  this  is  best  done  when  the 
subject  of  number  is  developed  by  a  similar  method.  In  these  first  deve- 
lopments the  aim  should  be  to  unfold  the  prominent  points,  rather  than  to 
secure  exhaustive  definitions. 


INDEX. 


The  numbers  refer  to  the  numbered  paragraphs. 


A  or  an,  216. 

Adjective,  denned,  39,  167,  209. 

limiting,  210. 

qualifying,  210. 

pronominal,  218. 

numeral,  219. 

as  predicate,  41,  380. 

as  modifier,  43,  388. 

rule  for,  375. 

comparison  of,  222. 

participial,  50,  413,  Eem.  2. 
Adjective  element,  361,  387,  388. 
Adverb,  defined,  52,  170,  314. 

classes  of,  315. 

modal,  315. 

conjunctive,  315. 

comparison  of,  316. 

construction  of,  402. 

rule  for,  375,  402. 
Adverbial  element,  361,  402. 
Adversative  conjunction,  325. 
Affirm,  how  employed,  342. 
Agreement  of  pronouns,  375. 

of  verbs,  275,  380. 
Alexandrine  verse,  430. 
Alphabet,  132. 

Alternative  conjunctions,  325. 
Analysis,  27,  369. 
Anapaest,  423,  426. 
Antecedent,  238. 
Apostrophe,  458. 
Apposition,  389. 
Article,  214. 
Aspirate,  129,  135. 
Attribute,  denned,  343. 

assumed,  345. 


Attribute,  predicated,  345. 

used  to  modify,  346. 
Auxiliaries,  306. 

Blank  verse,  421. 
Brackets,  457. 

Capitals,  469. 
Caret,  22,  461. 
Case,  defined,  80,  199. 

nominative,  81,  201. 

possessive,  82,  202,  204. 

objective,  83,  203. 

rules  for,  375. 
Clause,  309,  Eem. 
Colon,  447. 
Comma,  444,  445. 
Common  form  of  verb,  298. 

metre,  431. 

noun,  60,  175. 
Comparison,  109,  222. 

positive  degree  of,  110,  223. 

comparative,  110,  224,  226. 

superlative,  110,  225. 
Complex  sentence,  355. 
Compound  word,  160. 

personal  pronoun,  234. 

relative  pronoun,  242. 

element,  366. 

sentence,  355. 
Conjugation,  defined,  304. 

verb  to  be,  308. 

verb  love,  310. 
Conjunction,  defined,  56,  321. 

division  of,  322,  406. 

coordinate,  406. 

221 


222 


INDEX. 


Conjunction,  subordinate,  324. 
Conjunctive  adverbs,  315. 
Consonants,  134. 

union  of,  141. 

union  with  vowel,  142. 
Construction,  rules  of,  375. 

influence  of  elements  in,  360. 
Coordinate  connectives,  323. 

elements,  360,  Kern.  3. 

rule  for,  406. 

series,  445. 

couplet,  445. 
Copulative  conjunctions,  325. 

Dactyl,  427. 

Dactylic  verse,  439. 

Dasli,  449. 

Declarative  sentences,  334. 

Declension  of  nouns,  206. 

of  pronouns,  236,  244. 
Defective  verbs,  254. 
Diphthong,  143. 
Dissyllable,  155. 

proper,  144. 

improper,  145. 

Elementary  sounds,  125. 
Elements  of  a  sentence,  358. 

principal,  subordinate,  359. 

first,  second,  and  third  classes, 
363. 

simple,  complex,  and  com- 
pound, 366. 

substantive,    adjective,    and 
adverbial,  361. 

separation  of,  444. 
Ellipsis,  463. 

Emphatic  form  of  the  verb,  299. 
Equivalents,  136. 
Etymology,  121,  162. 
Exclamation  point,  455. 


Exclamatory  sentences,  337. 

Foot/422. 

Forms  of  the  verb,  296. 
Future  tense,  102,  293. 
perfect,  294. ' 

Gender,  defined,  74,  193. 

methods    of   distinguishing, 

197. 
Grammar,  defined,  118. 

Heroic  verse,  430- 
Hyphen,  462. 

Iambic  verse,  429. 
Iambus,  defined,  424. 
Idea,  6,  8. 
Imperative  mode,  96,  271. 

sentences,  336. 
Impersonal  verb,  256. 
Indicative  mode,  93,  268. 
Infinitive,  97,  272. 

rule  for,  413. 

special  rule,  413. 
Interjection,  57,  328, 
Interrogation  point,  454. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  243. 

sentences,  335. 
Irregular  verbs,  defined,  253. 

list  of,  312. 

Letter,  defined,  131. 

silent,  138. 

variable,  137. 
List  of  prepositions,  319. 

irregular  verbs,  312. 
Long  metre,  432. 

Modal  adverbs,  315. 
Mode,  defined,  266, 


INDEX. 


223 


Monosyllables,  154. 

Nominative  case,  81,  201. 

absolute,  413. 
Noun,  denned,  29,  174. 

cases  of,  175. 

properties  of,  179. 

as  subject,  31,  377. 

as  attribute,  33,  380. 

in  apposition,  31,  389. 

in  the  passive,  389. 

as  object  of  transitive  verb, 
399. 

as  object  of  preposition,  409. 

participial,  274. 
Number,  denned,  62,  186. 

of  the  pronoun,  235. 

of  the  verb,  302. 

Objects,  1,  4,  16. 

Object  of  transitive  verb,  399. 

of  preposition,  409. 
Orthography,  124. 

Parentheses,  450. 
Parsing,  113. 

plan  of,  114,  115,  116. 
Participle,  denned,  46,  274. 

as  adjective,  50,  413. 

kinds  of,  275. 

rule  for   (general   and  spe- 
cial), 413. 

Parts  of  speech,  112,  165. 
Passive  form,  301. 
Passive  voice,  263. 
Past  tense,  291. 

perfect  tense,  292. 
Period,  452. 
Person,  defined,  180. 
Personal  pronouns,  232. 

declension,  236. 


Phrase,  409. 

Plural  of  nouns,  64,  187. 

how  formed,  190,  191. 
Points,  punctuation,  441. 
Polysyllable,  157. 
Possessive  case,  defined,  202. 

formation  of,  204. 

construction  of,  389. 
Potential  mode,  269. 
Predicate,  25,  342. 

construction  of,  380. 
Preposition,  defined,  54,  318. 

list  of,  319. 

rule  for,  409. 

object  of,  409. 
Present  tense,  289. 

perfect  tense,  290. 
Principal  parts  of  the  verb,  307. 
Progressive    form    of   the   verb, 

300. 
Pronoun,  defined,  37,  230. 

personal,  71,  232. 

compound  personal,  234. 

declension  of,  236. 

relative,  238. 

interrogative,  243. 

agreement  of,  386. 
Proposition,  defined,  340. 

kinds  of,  348. 
Prosody,  defined,  416. 
Punctuation,  defined,  440. 

marks  of,  441. 

Quotation-marks,  459. 

Redundant  verbs,  257. 
Kegular  verb,  252. 
Relatives,  simple,  239. 

compound,  242. 
Ray  me,  420. 
Rules  of  construction,  875. 


224 


INDEX. 


Scanning,  428. 
Semicolon,  447. 
Sentence,  defined,  12,  332. 

kinds  of,  20,  333,  354. 
Short  metre,  432. 
Simple  element,  336. 

sentence,  354. 
Subject,  defined,  24,  341. 

construction  of,  377. 
Subjunctive  mode,  270. 
Subordinate  connectives,  324, 

rule  for,  406. 

elements,  359,  360. 
Subvocals,  128. 
Superlative,  225. 
Syllable,  defined,  150. 

essential'part  ofj  151. 
Synopsis,  309. 
Syntax,  defined,  331. 

Tense,  defined,  284. 

present,  289. 

present  perfect,  290. 

past,  291. 

past  perfect,  292. 

future,  293. 

future  perfect,  294. 

formation  of,  103. 
The,  215. 

To,  when  omitted,  413. 
Transitive  verb,  249. 
Triphthong,  defined,  146. 

proper,  147. 

improper,  148. 
Trisyllable,  156. 
Trochaic  verse,  434. 


Trochee,  425. 
Union  of  vowels,  145. 

Verb,  defined,  45,  247. 

transitive,  249. 

intransitive,  250. 

regular,  252. 

irregular,  253. 

defective,  254. 

auxiliary,  255. 

impersonal,  256. 

redundant,  257. 

forms  of,  296. 

list  of  irregular,  312. 

number  and  person  of,  302. 

conjugation  of,  304. 

principal  parts  of,  307. 

synopsis  of,  309. 

agreement  with  subject,  380. 
Verse,  defined,  418. 

kinds  of,  419. 
Versification,  417. 
Vocals,  127. 
Voice,  260. 
Vowel-marks,  468. 
Vowels,  133. 

union  of,  145. 

Words,  8,  153,  163. 
classes  of,  164. 
syntax  of,  376. 
principal  and  limiting,  18. 
primitive,  158. 
derivative,  159. 
compound,  160. 


•THE  END. 


ELECTROTYPE!)   By   MACKELLAE,    SMITHS   4   JORT>AN, 
PHH.APKLPHIA.. 


YA  00322 


r 


984568 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


COWPERTHWAH  &  CO., 
BOOKSELLERS    AND    PUBLISHERS, 


Invite  the  attention  of  the  Public  to  the  following 
VALUABLE  SCHOOL  BOOKS. 

WARREN'S  SERIES  CE  GEOGRAPHIES 

THE  PRIMARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

THE  COMMON-SCHOOL  GEOG    ^Y. 

THE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

These  three  books  form  a  complete  geographical  course, 
adapted  to  all  grades  of  schools.  The  series  is  used  in  most 
of  the  principal  cities  and  towns  of  the  United  States,  and 
wherever  the  books  have  been  adopted,  they  have  received 
the  warmest  commendationp  of  those  who  hav^r  used  or  ex- 
amined theiu. 


GREENE'S  SERIES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMARS. 

GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION    TO    THE    STUDY    OF 
ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

SNE'S  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

GREENE'S    ANAL    'y(S    OF    THE    ENGLISL     LAN- 
GUAGE. 

THIS  valuable  series  of  gcliool  bocks  was  prepared  by  Prof, 
raiuael  S.  Greene,  of  Brown  University,  Providence,  Rhode 
Mand.  T'pe  best  ii  commendation  of  them  is  the  fact  that 
,uey  are  ID  general  use  as  text-books  in  the  higher  order  of 
schools  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States 


BERARB'S  HISTORY  OE  T&F  UNITED  STATES. 


THIS  school  history  is  w 
and  the  promineni  events  of  or*  ' 
sented  in  so  pleasing  a  mann  n-  ( 
greatly  to^interest  and  ins[ 


i  a  most  attractive  style ; 
:  y?s  history  are  pre- 
hat  the  book  cannot  fail 
pupil. 


